arXiv2026
Continuous-variable systems enable key quantum technologies in computation, communication, and sensing. Bosonic Gaussian states emerge naturally in various such applications, including gravitational-wave and dark-matter detection. A fundamental question is how to characterize an unknown bosonic Gaussian state from as few samples as possible. Despite decades-long exploration, the ultimate efficiency limit remains unclear. In this work, we study the necessary and sufficient number of copies to learn an $n$-mode Gaussian state, with energy less than $E$, to $\varepsilon$ trace distance with high probability. We prove a lower bound of $\Omega(n^3/\varepsilon^2)$ for Gaussian measurements, matching the best known upper bound up to doubly-log energy dependence, and ${\Omega}(n^2/\varepsilon^2)$ for arbitrary measurements. We further show an upper bound of $\widetilde{O}(n^2/\varepsilon^2)$ given that the Gaussian state is promised to be either pure or passive. Interestingly, while Gaussian measurements suffice for nearly optimal learning of pure Gaussian states, non-Gaussian measurements are provably required for optimal learning of passive Gaussian states. Finally, focusing on learning single-mode Gaussian states via non-entangling Gaussian measurements, we provide a nearly tight bound of $\widetilde\Theta(E/\varepsilon^2)$ for any non-adaptive schemes, showing adaptivity is indispensable for nearly energy-independent scaling. As a byproduct, we establish sharp bounds on the trace distance between Gaussian states in terms of the total variation distance between their Wigner distributions, and obtain a nearly tight sample complexity bound for learning the Wigner distribution of any Gaussian state to $\varepsilon$ total variation distance. Our results greatly advance quantum learning theory in the bosonic regimes and have practical impact in quantum sensing and benchmarking applications.