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arXiv2024

Revolutionizing Cyber Threat Detection with Large Language Models: A privacy-preserving BERT-based Lightweight Model for IoT/IIoT Devices

The field of Natural Language Processing (NLP) is currently undergoing a revolutionary transformation driven by the power of pre-trained Large Language Models (LLMs) based on groundbreaking Transformer architectures. As the frequency and diversity of cybersecurity attacks continue to rise, the importance of incident detection has significantly increased. IoT devices are expanding rapidly, resulting in a growing need for efficient techniques to autonomously identify network-based attacks in IoT networks with both high precision and minimal computational requirements. This paper presents SecurityBERT, a novel architecture that leverages the Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) model for cyber threat detection in IoT networks. During the training of SecurityBERT, we incorporated a novel privacy-preserving encoding technique called Privacy-Preserving Fixed-Length Encoding (PPFLE). We effectively represented network traffic data in a structured format by combining PPFLE with the Byte-level Byte-Pair Encoder (BBPE) Tokenizer. Our research demonstrates that SecurityBERT outperforms traditional Machine Learning (ML) and Deep Learning (DL) methods, such as Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) or Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs), in cyber threat detection. Employing the Edge-IIoTset cybersecurity dataset, our experimental analysis shows that SecurityBERT achieved an impressive 98.2% overall accuracy in identifying fourteen distinct attack types, surpassing previous records set by hybrid solutions such as GAN-Transformer-based architectures and CNN-LSTM models. With an inference time of less than 0.15 seconds on an average CPU and a compact model size of just 16.7MB, SecurityBERT is ideally suited for real-life traffic analysis and a suitable choice for deployment on resource-constrained IoT devices.

cs.CR↗

arXiv2024

GaitPT: Skeletons Are All You Need For Gait Recognition

The analysis of patterns of walking is an important area of research that has numerous applications in security, healthcare, sports and human-computer interaction. Lately, walking patterns have been regarded as a unique fingerprinting method for automatic person identification at a distance. In this work, we propose a novel gait recognition architecture called Gait Pyramid Transformer (GaitPT) that leverages pose estimation skeletons to capture unique walking patterns, without relying on appearance information. GaitPT adopts a hierarchical transformer architecture that effectively extracts both spatial and temporal features of movement in an anatomically consistent manner, guided by the structure of the human skeleton. Our results show that GaitPT achieves state-of-the-art performance compared to other skeleton-based gait recognition works, in both controlled and in-the-wild scenarios. GaitPT obtains 82.6% average accuracy on CASIA-B, surpassing other works by a margin of 6%. Moreover, it obtains 52.16% Rank-1 accuracy on GREW, outperforming both skeleton-based and appearance-based approaches.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2023

PolyMaX: General Dense Prediction with Mask Transformer

Dense prediction tasks, such as semantic segmentation, depth estimation, and surface normal prediction, can be easily formulated as per-pixel classification (discrete outputs) or regression (continuous outputs). This per-pixel prediction paradigm has remained popular due to the prevalence of fully convolutional networks. However, on the recent frontier of segmentation task, the community has been witnessing a shift of paradigm from per-pixel prediction to cluster-prediction with the emergence of transformer architectures, particularly the mask transformers, which directly predicts a label for a mask instead of a pixel. Despite this shift, methods based on the per-pixel prediction paradigm still dominate the benchmarks on the other dense prediction tasks that require continuous outputs, such as depth estimation and surface normal prediction. Motivated by the success of DORN and AdaBins in depth estimation, achieved by discretizing the continuous output space, we propose to generalize the cluster-prediction based method to general dense prediction tasks. This allows us to unify dense prediction tasks with the mask transformer framework. Remarkably, the resulting model PolyMaX demonstrates state-of-the-art performance on three benchmarks of NYUD-v2 dataset. We hope our simple yet effective design can inspire more research on exploiting mask transformers for more dense prediction tasks. Code and model will be made available.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2024

PIXART-δ: Fast and Controllable Image Generation with Latent Consistency Models

This technical report introduces PIXART-δ, a text-to-image synthesis framework that integrates the Latent Consistency Model (LCM) and ControlNet into the advanced PIXART-α model. PIXART-α is recognized for its ability to generate high-quality images of 1024px resolution through a remarkably efficient training process. The integration of LCM in PIXART-δ significantly accelerates the inference speed, enabling the production of high-quality images in just 2-4 steps. Notably, PIXART-δ achieves a breakthrough 0.5 seconds for generating 1024x1024 pixel images, marking a 7x improvement over the PIXART-α. Additionally, PIXART-δ is designed to be efficiently trainable on 32GB V100 GPUs within a single day. With its 8-bit inference capability (von Platen et al., 2023), PIXART-δ can synthesize 1024px images within 8GB GPU memory constraints, greatly enhancing its usability and accessibility. Furthermore, incorporating a ControlNet-like module enables fine-grained control over text-to-image diffusion models. We introduce a novel ControlNet-Transformer architecture, specifically tailored for Transformers, achieving explicit controllability alongside high-quality image generation. As a state-of-the-art, open-source image generation model, PIXART-δ offers a promising alternative to the Stable Diffusion family of models, contributing significantly to text-to-image synthesis.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2025

Generic controllability of equivariant systems and applications to particle systems and neural networks

There exist many examples of systems which have some symmetries, and which one may monitor with symmetry preserving controls. Since symmetries are preserved along the evolution, full controllability is not possible, and controllability has to be considered inside sets of states with same symmetries. We prove that generic systems with symmetries are controllable in this sense. This result has several applications, for instance: (i) generic controllability of particle systems when the kernel of interaction between particles plays the role of a mean-field control; (ii) generic controllability for families of vector fields on manifolds with boundary; (iii) universal interpolation for neural networks architectures with "generic" self attention-type layers - a type of layers ubiquitous in recent neural networks architectures, e.g., in the Transformers architecture. The tools we develop could help address various other questions of control of equivariant systems.

math.DS↗

arXiv2024

Reducing catastrophic forgetting of incremental learning in the absence of rehearsal memory with task-specific token

Deep learning models generally display catastrophic forgetting when learning new data continuously. Many incremental learning approaches address this problem by reusing data from previous tasks while learning new tasks. However, the direct access to past data generates privacy and security concerns. To address these issues, we present a novel method that preserves previous knowledge without storing previous data. This method is inspired by the architecture of a vision transformer and employs a unique token capable of encapsulating the compressed knowledge of each task. This approach generates task-specific embeddings by directing attention differently based on the task associated with the data, thereby effectively mimicking the impact of having multiple models through tokens. Our method incorporates a distillation process that ensures efficient interactions even after multiple additional learning steps, thereby optimizing the model against forgetting. We measured the performance of our model in terms of accuracy and backward transfer using a benchmark dataset for different task-incremental learning scenarios. Our results demonstrate the superiority of our approach, which achieved the highest accuracy and lowest backward transfer among the compared methods. In addition to presenting a new model, our approach lays the foundation for various extensions within the spectrum of vision-transformer architectures.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

PCA-Featured Transformer for Jamming Detection in 5G UAV Networks

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) face significant security risks from jamming attacks, which can compromise network functionality. Traditional detection methods often fall short when confronting AI-powered jamming that dynamically modifies its behavior, while contemporary machine learning approaches frequently demand substantial feature engineering and struggle with temporal patterns in attack signatures. The vulnerability extends to 5G networks employing Time Division Duplex (TDD) or Frequency Division Duplex (FDD), where service quality may deteriorate due to deliberate interference. We introduce a novel U-shaped transformer architecture that leverages Principal Component Analysis (PCA) to refine feature representations for improved wireless security. The training process is regularized by incorporating the output entropy uncertainty into the loss function, a mechanism inspired by the Soft Actor-Critic (SAC) algorithm in Reinforcement Learning (RL) to enable robust jamming detection techniques. The architecture features a modified transformer encoder specially designed to process critical wireless signal features, including Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and Signal-to- Interference-plus-Noise Ratio (SINR) measurements. We complement this with a custom positional encoding mechanism that specifically accounts for the inherent periodicity of wireless signals,enabling a more accurate representation of temporal signal patterns. In addition, we propose a batch size scheduler and implement chunking techniques to optimize convergence for time series data. These advancements contribute to up to a ten times improvement in training speed within the advanced U-shaped encoder-decoder transformer model introduced in this study. Experimental evaluations demonstrate the effectiveness of our entropy-based approach, achieving detection rates of 85.06% in NLoS scenarios.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

Vision Transformer Neural Architecture Search for Out-of-Distribution Generalization: Benchmark and Insights

While ViTs have achieved across machine learning tasks, deploying them in real-world scenarios faces a critical challenge: generalizing under OoD shifts. A crucial research gap exists in understanding how to design ViT architectures, both manually and automatically, for better OoD generalization. To this end, we introduce OoD-ViT-NAS, the first systematic benchmark for ViTs NAS focused on OoD generalization. This benchmark includes 3000 ViT architectures of varying computational budgets evaluated on 8 common OoD datasets. Using this benchmark, we analyze factors contributing to OoD generalization. Our findings reveal key insights. First, ViT architecture designs significantly affect OoD generalization. Second, ID accuracy is often a poor indicator of OoD accuracy, highlighting the risk of optimizing ViT architectures solely for ID performance. Third, we perform the first study of NAS for ViTs OoD robustness, analyzing 9 Training-free NAS methods. We find that existing Training-free NAS methods are largely ineffective in predicting OoD accuracy despite excelling at ID accuracy. Simple proxies like Param or Flop surprisingly outperform complex Training-free NAS methods in predicting OoD accuracy. Finally, we study how ViT architectural attributes impact OoD generalization and discover that increasing embedding dimensions generally enhances performance. Our benchmark shows that ViT architectures exhibit a wide range of OoD accuracy, with up to 11.85% improvement for some OoD shifts. This underscores the importance of studying ViT architecture design for OoD. We believe OoD-ViT-NAS can catalyze further research into how ViT designs influence OoD generalization.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

Do Protein Transformers Have Biological Intelligence?

Deep neural networks, particularly Transformers, have been widely adopted for predicting the functional properties of proteins. In this work, we focus on exploring whether Protein Transformers can capture biological intelligence among protein sequences. To achieve our goal, we first introduce a protein function dataset, namely Protein-FN, providing over 9000 protein data with meaningful labels. Second, we devise a new Transformer architecture, namely Sequence Protein Transformers (SPT), for computationally efficient protein function predictions. Third, we develop a novel Explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) technique called Sequence Score, which can efficiently interpret the decision-making processes of protein models, thereby overcoming the difficulty of deciphering biological intelligence bided in Protein Transformers. Remarkably, even our smallest SPT-Tiny model, which contains only 5.4M parameters, demonstrates impressive predictive accuracy, achieving 94.3% on the Antibiotic Resistance (AR) dataset and 99.6% on the Protein-FN dataset, all accomplished by training from scratch. Besides, our Sequence Score technique helps reveal that our SPT models can discover several meaningful patterns underlying the sequence structures of protein data, with these patterns aligning closely with the domain knowledge in the biology community. We have officially released our Protein-FN dataset on Hugging Face Datasets https://huggingface.co/datasets/Protein-FN/Protein-FN. Our code is available at https://github.com/fudong03/BioIntelligence.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2025

Pose Matters: Evaluating Vision Transformers and CNNs for Human Action Recognition on Small COCO Subsets

This study explores human action recognition using a three-class subset of the COCO image corpus, benchmarking models from simple fully connected networks to transformer architectures. The binary Vision Transformer (ViT) achieved 90% mean test accuracy, significantly exceeding multiclass classifiers such as convolutional networks (approximately 35%) and CLIP-based models (approximately 62-64%). A one-way ANOVA (F = 61.37, p < 0.001) confirmed these differences are statistically significant. Qualitative analysis with SHAP explainer and LeGrad heatmaps indicated that the ViT localizes pose-specific regions (e.g., lower limbs for walking or running), while simpler feed-forward models often focus on background textures, explaining their errors. These findings emphasize the data efficiency of transformer representations and the importance of explainability techniques in diagnosing class-specific failures.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

ThinkingViT: Matryoshka Thinking Vision Transformer for Elastic Inference

ViTs deliver SOTA performance, yet their fixed computational budget prevents scalable deployment across heterogeneous hardware. Recent Matryoshka-style Transformer architectures mitigate this by embedding nested subnetworks within a single model to enable scalable inference. However, these models allocate the same amount of compute to all inputs, regardless of their complexity, which leads to inefficiencies. To address this, we introduce ThinkingViT, a nested ViT architecture that employs progressive thinking stages to dynamically adjust inference computation based on input difficulty. ThinkingViT first activates a small subset of the most important attention heads to produce an initial prediction. If the prediction confidence exceeds a predefined threshold, inference terminates early. Otherwise, within the same backbone, it activates a larger subset of attention heads and conducts a new forward pass. This process continues iteratively until the model reaches the predefined confidence level or exhausts its maximum capacity. To boost the performance of subsequent rounds, we introduce a Token Recycling approach that fuses the input embeddings with the embeddings from the previous stage. Experiments show that ThinkingViT surpasses nested baselines by up to 2.0 percentage points (p.p.) in accuracy at the same throughput and by up to 2.9 p.p. at equal GMACs on ImageNet-1K. We show that the backbone-preserving design of ThinkingViT allows it to serve as a plug-in upgrade for ViTs in downstream tasks such as semantic segmentation. We also demonstrate that ThinkingViT transfers effectively to other architectures such as Swin Transformers. The source code is available at https://github.com/ds-kiel/ThinkingViT.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2025

SINAI at eRisk@CLEF 2023: Approaching Early Detection of Gambling with Natural Language Processing

This paper describes the participation of the SINAI team in the eRisk@CLEF lab. Specifically, one of the proposed tasks has been addressed: Task 2 on the early detection of signs of pathological gambling. The approach presented in Task 2 is based on pre-trained models from Transformers architecture with comprehensive preprocessing data and data balancing techniques. Moreover, we integrate Long-short Term Memory (LSTM) architecture with automodels from Transformers. In this Task, our team has been ranked in seventh position, with an F1 score of 0.126, out of 49 participant submissions and achieves the highest values in recall metrics and metrics related to early detection.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2026

A Constrained Optimization Perspective of Unrolled Transformers

We introduce a constrained optimization framework for training transformers that behave like optimization descent algorithms. Specifically, we enforce layerwise descent constraints on the objective function and replace standard empirical risk minimization (ERM) with a primal-dual training scheme. This approach yields models whose intermediate representations decrease the loss monotonically in expectation across layers. We apply our method to both unrolled transformer architectures and conventional pretrained transformers on tasks of video denoising and text classification. Across these settings, we observe constrained transformers achieve stronger robustness to perturbations and maintain higher out-of-distribution generalization, while preserving in-distribution performance.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Improving Parameter Utilization by Sharing Neural Experts Across Layers in Transformers

Transformer-based large language models often suffer from inter-layer parameter redundancy, where functional transformations are redundantly learned across network depths. We propose CS-MoE, a novel Transformer architecture featuring cross-layer expert sharing to address this inefficiency. Deviating from the widely used Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) architecture that terminates each Transformer block with layer-isolated experts, CS-MoE combines layer-independent experts with concurrent access to a centralized, globally shared expert pool. This \textit{Global Experts Sharing} mechanism enables elastic control over token-level parameter activation and computational consumption (FLOPs). Experiments demonstrate that CS-MoE achieves lower perplexity than equal-scale dense Transformers while activating only 55\% of parameters. Furthermore, its performance scales monotonically with an increased number of activated experts and approaches MoE counterparts that consume more FLOPs by expanding the shared pool with a fixed FLOPs budget. CS-MoE also establishes a flexible Pareto frontier between computational cost and model capacity, offering an efficient alternative for computation-constrained environments.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

The Extender: A Log-Structured Transformer

We introduce the Extender, a log-structured variant of the standard Transformer architecture. In a standard Transformer, each layer communicates with subsequent layers exclusively via the residual $\mathbf{h}$, a superposition channel. The Extender adds a concatenation channel $\mathbf{x}$: each layer $\ell$ emits both a residual update $δ_\ell$ which is added to $\mathbf{h}$, and a much smaller extension $ε_\ell$ which is appended to $\mathbf{x}$. While both the FFN and $\mathbf{q}$ see $\mathbf{h}$, the attention $\mathbf{kv}$ projections take only $\mathbf{x}$ as input. As a result, the fully extended $\mathbf{x}$ contains the complete input for the $\mathbf{kv}$ projections of all layers, reducing the persistent attention memory footprint from $2Ld_{model}$ to $\sum|ε_\ell|$. We find that with $|ε_\ell|=32$, the Extender matches Transformer accuracy on short-context (CORE) tasks at 199M-924M parameters, and exceeds Transformer accuracy on long-context (RULER) workloads, again at 924M parameters. For our 1664-wide, 924M model, the Extender's persistent attention memory footprint is $104\times$ smaller than MHA. The memory savings grow with model width.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2024

An Enhanced Harmonic Densely Connected Hybrid Transformer Network Architecture for Chronic Wound Segmentation Utilising Multi-Colour Space Tensor Merging

Chronic wounds and associated complications present ever growing burdens for clinics and hospitals world wide. Venous, arterial, diabetic, and pressure wounds are becoming increasingly common globally. These conditions can result in highly debilitating repercussions for those affected, with limb amputations and increased mortality risk resulting from infection becoming more common. New methods to assist clinicians in chronic wound care are therefore vital to maintain high quality care standards. This paper presents an improved HarDNet segmentation architecture which integrates a contrast-eliminating component in the initial layers of the network to enhance feature learning. We also utilise a multi-colour space tensor merging process and adjust the harmonic shape of the convolution blocks to facilitate these additional features. We train our proposed model using wound images from light-skinned patients and test the model on two test sets (one set with ground truth, and one without) comprising only darker-skinned cases. Subjective ratings are obtained from clinical wound experts with intraclass correlation coefficient used to determine inter-rater reliability. For the dark-skin tone test set with ground truth, we demonstrate improvements in terms of Dice similarity coefficient (+0.1221) and intersection over union (+0.1274). Qualitative analysis showed high expert ratings, with improvements of >3% demonstrated when comparing the baseline model with the proposed model. This paper presents the first study to focus on darker-skin tones for chronic wound segmentation using models trained only on wound images exhibiting lighter skin. Diabetes is highly prevalent in countries where patients have darker skin tones, highlighting the need for a greater focus on such cases. Additionally, we conduct the largest qualitative study to date for chronic wound segmentation.

eess.IV↗

arXiv2024

Improved EATFormer: A Vision Transformer for Medical Image Classification

The accurate analysis of medical images is vital for diagnosing and predicting medical conditions. Traditional approaches relying on radiologists and clinicians suffer from inconsistencies and missed diagnoses. Computer-aided diagnosis systems can assist in achieving early, accurate, and efficient diagnoses. This paper presents an improved Evolutionary Algorithm-based Transformer architecture for medical image classification using Vision Transformers. The proposed EATFormer architecture combines the strengths of Convolutional Neural Networks and Vision Transformers, leveraging their ability to identify patterns in data and adapt to specific characteristics. The architecture incorporates novel components, including the Enhanced EA-based Transformer block with Feed-Forward Network, Global and Local Interaction , and Multi-Scale Region Aggregation modules. It also introduces the Modulated Deformable MSA module for dynamic modeling of irregular locations. The paper discusses the Vision Transformer (ViT) model's key features, such as patch-based processing, positional context incorporation, and Multi-Head Attention mechanism. It introduces the Multi-Scale Region Aggregation module, which aggregates information from different receptive fields to provide an inductive bias. The Global and Local Interaction module enhances the MSA-based global module by introducing a local path for extracting discriminative local information. Experimental results on the Chest X-ray and Kvasir datasets demonstrate that the proposed EATFormer significantly improves prediction speed and accuracy compared to baseline models.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2022

Dual Vision Transformer

Prior works have proposed several strategies to reduce the computational cost of self-attention mechanism. Many of these works consider decomposing the self-attention procedure into regional and local feature extraction procedures that each incurs a much smaller computational complexity. However, regional information is typically only achieved at the expense of undesirable information lost owing to down-sampling. In this paper, we propose a novel Transformer architecture that aims to mitigate the cost issue, named Dual Vision Transformer (Dual-ViT). The new architecture incorporates a critical semantic pathway that can more efficiently compress token vectors into global semantics with reduced order of complexity. Such compressed global semantics then serve as useful prior information in learning finer pixel level details, through another constructed pixel pathway. The semantic pathway and pixel pathway are then integrated together and are jointly trained, spreading the enhanced self-attention information in parallel through both of the pathways. Dual-ViT is henceforth able to reduce the computational complexity without compromising much accuracy. We empirically demonstrate that Dual-ViT provides superior accuracy than SOTA Transformer architectures with reduced training complexity. Source code is available at \url{https://github.com/YehLi/ImageNetModel}.

cs.CV↗