Formation of GW190521 from stellar evolution: the impact of the hydrogen-rich envelope, dredge-up and $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O rate on the pair-instability black hole mass gap

Abstract

Pair-instability (PI) is expected to open a gap in the mass spectrum of black holes (BHs) between $\approx{}40-65$ M$_\odot$ and $\approx{}120$ M$_\odot$. The existence of the mass gap is currently being challenged by the detection of GW190521, with a primary component mass of $85^{+21}_{-14}$ M$_{\odot}$. Here, we investigate the main uncertainties on the PI mass gap: the $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O reaction rate and the H-rich envelope collapse. With the standard $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O rate, the lower edge of the mass gap can be 70 M$_\odot$ if we allow for the collapse of the residual H-rich envelope at metallicity $Z\leq{}0.0003$. Adopting the uncertainties given by the STARLIB database, for models computed with the $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O rate $-1\, \sigma$, we find that the PI mass gap ranges between $\approx{}80$ M$_\odot$ and $\approx{}150$ M$_\odot$. Stars with $M_{\rm ZAMS}>110$ M$_\odot$ may experience a deep dredge-up episode during the core helium-burning phase, that extracts matter from the core enriching the envelope. As a consequence of the He-core mass reduction, a star with $M_{\rm ZAMS} =160$ M$_\odot$ may avoid the PI and produce a BH of 150 M$_\odot$. In the $-2\,{}\sigma{}$ case, the PI mass gap ranges from 92 M$_\odot$ to 110 M$_\odot$. Finally, in models computed with $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O $-3\,{}\sigma{}$, the mass gap is completely removed by the dredge-up effect. The onset of this dredge-up is particularly sensitive to the assumed model for convection and mixing. The combined effect of H-rich envelope collapse and low $^{12}$C($\alpha$, $\gamma$)$^{16}$O rate can lead to the formation of BHs with masses consistent with the primary component of GW190521.