Planetary Population Synthesis and the Emergence of Four Classes of Planetary System Architectures

Abstract

Planetary population synthesis is a tool to understand the physics of planetary system formation. It builds on a model that includes a multitude of physical processes. The outcome can be statistically compared with exoplanet observations. Here, we review the population synthesis method and then use one population to explore how different planetary system architectures emerge and which conditions lead to their formation. The systems can be classified into four main architectures: Class I of near-in situ compositionally ordered terrestrial and ice planets, Class II of migrated sub-Neptunes, Class III of mixed low-mass and giant planets, broadly similar to the Solar System, and Class IV of dynamically active giants without inner low-mass planets. These four classes exhibit distinct typical formation pathways and are characterised by certain mass scales. Class I systems form from the local accretion of planetesimals followed by a giant impact phase, and the final planet masses correspond to the `Goldreich mass'. Class II systems form when planets reach the `equality mass' (equal accretion and migration timescales) before the dispersal of the gas disc, but not large enough to allow for rapid gas accretion. Giant planets form when the `equality mass' allows for rapid gas accretion while the planet are migrating, i.e. when the critical core mass is reached. The main discriminant of the four classes is the initial mass of solids in the disc, with contributions from the lifetime and mass of the gas disc. The breakdown into classes allows to better understand which physical processes are dominant. Comparison with observations reveals certain differences to the actual population, pointing at limitation of theoretical understanding. For example, the overrepresentation of synthetic super Earths and sub-Neptunes in Class I causes these planets to be found at lower metallicities than in observations.