Universal splitting of phase transitions and performance optimization in driven collective systems

Abstract

Spontaneous symmetry breaking is a hallmark of equilibrium systems, typically characterized by a single critical point separating ordered and disordered phases. Recently, a novel class of non-equilibrium phase transitions was uncovered [Phys. Rev. Res. {\bf 7}, L032049 (2025)], showing that the combined effects of simultaneous contact with thermal baths at different temperatures and external driving forces can split the conventional order-disorder transition into two distinct critical points, determined by which ordered state initially dominates. We show the robustness of this phenomenon by extending a minimal interacting-spin model from the idealized case of simultaneous bath coupling to a finite-time coupling protocol. In particular, we introduce two protocols in which the system interacts with a single bath at a time: a stochastic protocol, where the system randomly switches between the baths at different temperatures, and a deterministic protocol where the coupling alternates periodically. Our analysis reveals two key results: (i) the splitting of phase transitions persists across all coupling schemes -- simultaneous, stochastic, and deterministic -- and (ii) different optimizations of power and efficiency in a collectively operating heat engine reveal that both the stochastic and deterministic protocols exhibit superior global performance at intermediate switching rates and periods when compared to simultaneous coupling. The global trade-off between power and efficiency is described by an expression solely depending on the temperatures of thermal reservoirs as the efficiency approaches to the ideal limit.