Increased and Varied Radiation during the Sun's Encounters with Cold Clouds in the last 10 million years

Merav Opher; Joe Giacalone; Abraham Loeb; Evan P. Economo; Alan Cummings; Jennifer Middleton; Catherine Zucker; Jesse A. Miller; Anna Nica; Maria Hatzaki

arXiv · 2601.11785

Increased and Varied Radiation during the Sun's Encounters with Cold Clouds in the last 10 million years

Merav Opher·Joe Giacalone·Abraham Loeb·Evan P. Economo·Alan Cummings·Jennifer Middleton·Catherine Zucker·Jesse A. Miller·Anna Nica·Maria Hatzaki

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Abstract

Recent research raises the possibility that 3 and 7 million years ago, the Sun encountered massive clouds that shrank the heliosphere--the solar cocoon protecting our solar system--exposing Earth to its interstellar environment, in agreement with geological evidence from 60Fe and 244Pu isotopes. Here we show that during such encounters Earth was exposed to increased radiation in the form of high-energy particles. During periods of Earth's immersion in the heliosphere, it received particle radiation that we name Heliospheric Energetic Particles (HEPs). The intensity of < 10 MeV protons was at least an order of magnitude more intense than today's most extreme solar energetic particle (SEP) events. SEPs today last minutes to hours, but HEP exposure then lasted for extensive periods of several months, making it a prolonged external driver. During Earth's excursion outside the heliosphere, it was exposed to a galactic cosmic ray radiation with the intensity of < 1 GeV protons at least an order of magnitude more intense than today. Therefore, the space surrounding Earth was permeated by a variable high-energy radiation. We discuss the implications for Earth's climate and biodiversity.

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Merav Opher, Joe Giacalone, Abraham Loeb, Evan P. Economo, Alan Cummings, Jennifer Middleton, Catherine Zucker, Jesse A. Miller, Anna Nica, Maria Hatzaki. 2026-01-16. Increased and Varied Radiation during the Sun's Encounters with Cold Clouds in the last 10 million years. https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.11785

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