Beyond Linearity: Full-scale response modelling and experimental validation of LVDTs

Abstract

Linear Variable Differential Transformers (LVDTs) are widely used as high-precision, contactless displacement sensors in industrial, metrological, and scientific applications. Their performance is typically characterised only within the central linear operating region, whereas their behaviour across large displacements, where geometric and electromagnetic effects introduce significant non-linearity, remains poorly researched. In this work, we present a comprehensive analysis of the full-range response of an LVDT, spanning its entire mechanical stroke. Using a combination of custom-developed finite-element modelling pipeline and dedicated laboratory measurements, we demonstrate that the LVDT response comprises several distinct dynamical regimes. We introduce an analytically unified expression that accurately reproduces the measured response over all displacement scales, including linear and non-linear ranges, capturing the underlying physical features of the device. The model achieves high fidelity across the full range and provides closed-form first and second derivatives, enabling unambiguous displacement reconstruction, even in the non-linear regime where the voltage is multivalued. The derivative structure further clarifies the contribution of geometric coupling, noise-dominated central behaviour, and envelope decay. This study establishes, for the first time, a systematic framework for modelling, interpreting, and utilising the full-range behaviour of LVDTs. It offers guidance for systems that undergo large quasi-static excursions, overload recovery, or long-range alignment.