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arXiv · 2609.01683

FORGE: Forward-Only Test-Time Adaptation for Integer-Only Vision Models on Microcontrollers

Muhammad Rehan·Haider Ali·Muhammad Ali Munir·Moaz Amjad
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Abstract

Vision models deployed on microcontrollers (MCUs) are quantized to integer-only arithmetic and run in inference-only runtimes that do not carry the machinery backpropagation needs: the standard tool for adapting a model to the distribution shift (sensor noise, blur, lighting) it meets in the field. Existing forward-only test-time adaptation (TTA) methods either run only on server- or edge-GPU-class models (not true microcontroller integer execution), or require the batch-normalization (BN) layers that integer deployment fuses away. We present a forward-only TTA method that operates on deployed, BN-folded, integer-only convolutional networks. The key observation is that fusing BN into the preceding convolution, a mandatory step for integer inference, destroys the statistics that normalization-based adaptation relies on. We restore adaptation by re-normalizing each folded convolution's per-channel output to its clean training statistics, using only forward-pass estimates. The method (i) recovers most of gradient-based TENT's accuracy gain (+20.9 vs. +24.9 points) and matches forward-only BN adaptation, while being the only method that runs on a folded integer-only model; (ii) needs to adapt only 3 of 21 layers (selected without seeing the test corruptions) to recover 93% of the benefit; (iii) survives single-sample streaming with a batch-size-scaled momentum; and (iv) generalizes across three datasets (up to 200 classes) and two architectures. We validate bit-exact int8 convolution execution and deploy on an ESP32-S3, where, measured with a Nordic PPK2 power profiler, the forward-only adaptation (a lightweight fp32 recalibration around the int8 convolutions) costs only 8.3 mJ (6.8% of inference energy) and 21.9 ms on the deployed SIMD-optimized model: forward-only adaptation is cheap on a real microcontroller.

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Muhammad Rehan, Haider Ali, Muhammad Ali Munir, Moaz Amjad. 2026-09-01. FORGE: Forward-Only Test-Time Adaptation for Integer-Only Vision Models on Microcontrollers. https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.01683

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