Beating and coupling in pulsating stars: a unified Fourier description and observational diagnostics

Abstract

Long-term amplitude and phase variations in pulsating stars produce side peaks or multiplets in the Fourier spectrum of the light curves around the pulsation frequency and its harmonics. Such structures are often attributed to modulation, although linear beating and the non-linear coupling of close oscillations can also produce similar patterns. We develop a unified analytical Fourier description of these alternatives and identify observational relations that retain discriminatory power when their frequency patterns overlap. We represent the signal as a dominant, non-sinusoidal oscillation plus one or more secondary oscillations close to it, and analytically derive the frequencies, complex amplitudes, and phases resulting from linear superposition, quadratic and general non-linear coupling. We also illustrate the calculated phenomena using artificial light curves. We implement the resulting tests in a diagnostic tool "freqdiag", which compares modulation with primary--secondary quadratic coupling models anchored to either the higher- or lower-frequency side peak, using the same normalized complex amplitudes, and supplements the fit with hierarchical tests of side-peak amplitude progression. A sinusoidal secondary signal produces only one additional peak in the linear-beating case, whereas a non-sinusoidal secondary signal produces a harmonic sequence, whose separation from the primary harmonics increases with order. Quadratic coupling produces terms $nf_0+lf_B$, but their amplitudes and phases follow shifted-harmonic and combination relations. At general non-linear order, coupling and modulation occupy the same frequency grid. The formalism provides a practical framework for interpreting Blazhko-like RRc stars, HADS variables, and other pulsating stars in which modulation and coupling are difficult to separate observationally.