Mohamed A. Amer | Searcharxiv

arXiv2026

Foundations of Trigonometry: Conceptual and Logical, Being an Essay Towards a Conceptual Foundations of Mathematics

Noticing that all of the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries treatments of trigonometry surveyed in this article are conceptually or logically defective, it is required to seek a conceptually sound and logically correct foundations of the subject. To this end, several questions have to be discussed: Is mathematics arbitrary? What does it have to do with nature? Reality? Applications? What is measure? Direct measure? Indirect measure? What are ratios? Eudoxean ratios? What is their relationship to measure? What are the real numbers? What is their relationship to ratios? To measure? What are the geometric trigonometric functions? The analytic trigonometric functions? What is the relationship between them? What is the measure of an angle? what is its relationship to trigonometry?......? After dealing with these philosophical and technical questions, a treatment of both geometric and analytic trigonometry which would be conceptually sound and logically correct foundations of the subject is proposed. This treatment distinguishes between geometric trigonometric functions (the elements of whose domain are angles) and analytic trigonometric functions (the elements of whose domain are real numbers), the bridge from the former to the latter is the measure of angles. The geometric trigonometric functions are defined to be the Eudoxean ratios between appropriate straight line-segments, and the measure of an angle is defined to be its Eudoxean ratio to the radian, which is to be defined beforehand. Also, the Eudoxean ratios were defined beforehand, and it was advocated that it is conceptually sound to consider them as the positive elements of the field of the real numbers.

math.HO↗

arXiv2019

Aristotelian assertoric syllogistic

Aristotelian assertoric syllogistic, which is currently of growing interest, has attracted the attention of the founders of modern logic, who approached it in several (semantical and syntactical) ways. Further approaches were introduced later on. These approaches (with few exceptions) are here discussed, developed and interrelated. Among other things, different facets of soundness, completeness, decidability and independence are investigated. Specifically arithmetization (Leibniz), algebraization (Leibniz and Boole), and Venn models (Euler and Venn) are closely examined. All proofs are simple. In particular there is no recourse to maximal nor minimal conditions (with only one, dispensable, exception), which makes the long awaited deciphering of the enigmatic Leibniz characteristic numbers possible. The problem was how to look at matters from the right perspective.

math.LO↗