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Peter Jordan

Publications and source records attributed to Peter Jordan.

36 records · Page 2Linked to original sources

Solutions to aliasing in time-resolved flow data

Avoiding aliasing in time-resolved flow data obtained through high fidelity simulations while keeping the computational and storage costs at acceptable levels is often a challenge. Well-established solutions such as increasing the sampling rate or low-pass filtering to reduce aliasing can be prohibitively expensive for large data sets. This paper provides a set of alternative strategies for identifying and mitigating aliasing that are applicable even to large data sets. We show how time-derivative data, which can be obtained directly from the governing equations, can be used to detect aliasing and to turn the ill-posed problem of removing aliasing from data into a well-posed problem, yielding a prediction of the true spectrum. Similarly, we show how spatial filtering can be used to remove aliasing for convective systems. We also propose strategies to prevent aliasing when generating a database, including a method tailored for computing nonlinear forcing terms that arise within the resolvent framework. These methods are demonstrated using a non-linear Ginzburg-Landau model and large-eddy simulation (LES) data for a subsonic turbulent jet.

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Resolvent-based tools for optimal estimation and control via the Wiener-Hopf formalism

The application of control tools to complex flows frequently requires approximations, such as reduced-order models and/or simplified forcing assumptions, where these may be considered low-rank or defined in terms of simplified statistics (e.g. white noise). In this work, we propose a resolvent-based control methodology with causality imposed via a Wiener-Hopf formalism. Linear optimal causal estimation and control laws are obtained directly from full-rank, globally stable systems with arbitrary disturbance statistics, circumventing many drawbacks of alternative methods. We use efficient, matrix-free methods to construct the matrix Wiener-Hopf problem, and we implement a tailored method to solve the problem numerically. The approach naturally handles forcing terms with space-time colour; it allows inexpensive parametric investigation of sensor/actuator placement in scenarios where disturbances/targets are low rank; it is directly applicable to complex flows disturbed by high-rank forcing; it has lower cost in comparison to standard methods; it can be used in scenarios where an adjoint solver is not available; or it can be based exclusively on experimental data. The method is particularly well-suited for the control of amplifier flows, for which optimal control approaches are typically robust. Validation of the approach is performed using the linearized Ginzburg-Landau equation. Flow over a backward-facing step perturbed by high-rank forcing is then considered. Sensor and actuator placement are investigated for this case, and we show that while the flow response downstream of the step is dominated by the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism, it has a complex, high-rank receptivity to incoming upstream perturbations, requiring multiple sensors for control.

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Including acoustic modes in the vortex-sheet eigenbasis of a jet

Vortex-sheet models of jets are widely used to describe the dynamics of modes, such as the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability and guided acoustic waves. However, it is seldom pointed out in the literature the absence of the free-stream acoustic modes in the vortex-sheet spectrum. This indicates that free-stream sound waves are not eigensolutions of the parallel jet. This family of modes is important if, for example, one is interested in problems of sound emission or flow-acoustic interactions. In this work we show how a distantly-confined jet may be used as a surrogate problem for the free jet, in which free-stream acoustic waves appear as a set of discrete modes. Comparing the modes observed in the free jet with those of the distantly-confined jet, we show that, other than the free-stream acoustic modes, the eigenvectors and eigenvalues converge with wall distance. The proposed surrogate problem thus efficiently reproduces the dynamics of the original problem, while allowing to account for the dynamics of free-stream acoustic modes.

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Wave cancellation in jets with laminar and turbulent boundary layers: the effect of nonlinearity

This paper presents a study on wave cancellation in forced jets. Building on recent work on real-time control of forced turbulent jets [1,2], we here assess the effect of jet upstream conditions and nonlinearity on wave-cancellation performance. The experiments are performed in jets with laminar and turbulent boundary layers inside the nozzle. An open-loop campaign is first conducted, in which the goal is to analyse the jet response to stochastic forcing with variable bandwidth. The upstream conditions of the jet are found to have a strong influence on the jet response. For narrow forcing bandwidths, both jets present a clear response regime. However, in the initially-laminar jet, as bandwidth is increased, high growth rates and transition to turbulence in the initial region underpin the onset of nonlinear effects in jet response. In the initially-turbulent jet, on the other hand, lower growth rates allow a linear response regime to be maintained for a broader range of forcing parameters. As the wave cancellation strategy is linear, reactive control is found to be more effective in the initially turbulent jet, consistent with the results of the open-loop analysis.

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Reflection and transmission of a Kelvin-Helmholtz wave incident on a shock in a jet

Screech tones in supersonic jets are underpinned by resonance between downstream-travelling Kelvin-Helmholtz waves and upstream-travelling acoustic waves. Specifically, recent work suggests that the relevant acoustic waves are guided within the jet and are described by a discrete mode of the linearised Navier-Stokes equations. However, the reflection mechanism that converts downstream-travelling waves into upstream-travelling waves, and vice versa, has not been thoroughly addressed, leading to missing physics within most resonance models. In this work we investigate the reflection and transmission of waves generated by the interaction between a Kelvin-Helmholtz wave and a normal shock in an under-expanded jet using a mode-matching approach. Both vortex-sheet and finite-thickness shear-layer models are explored, quantifying the impact of the shear layer in the reflection process. This approach could enable more quantitative predictions of resonance phenomena in jets and other fluid systems.

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A complex-valued resonance model for axisymmetric screech tones in supersonic jets

We model the resonance mechanism underpinning generation of A1 and A2 screech tones in an under-expanded supersonic jet. Starting from the resonance model recently proposed by \cite{mancinelli2019screech}, where the upstream-travelling wave is a neutrally-stable guided jet mode, we here present a more complete linear-stability-based model for screech prediction. We study temperature and shear-layer thickness effects and show that, in order to accurately describe the experimental data, the effect of the finite thickness of the shear layer must be incorporated in the jet-dynamics model. We then present an improved resonance model for screech-frequency predictions in which both downstream- and upstream-travelling waves may have complex wavenumber and frequency. This resonance model requires knowledge of the reflection coefficients at the upstream and downstream locations of the resonance loop. We explore the effect of the reflection coefficients on the resonance model and propose an approach for their identification. The complex-mode model identifies limited regions of frequency-flow parameter space for which the resonance loop is amplified in time, a necessary condition for the resonance to be sustained. This model provides an improved description of the experimental measurements.

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Resolvent-based modeling of turbulent jet noise

Resolvent analysis has demonstrated encouraging results for modeling coherent structures in jets when compared against their data-educed counterparts from high-fidelity large-eddy simulations (LES). We formulate resolvent analysis as an acoustic analogy that relates the near-field resolvent forcing to the near- and far-field pressure. We use an LES database of round, isothermal, Mach 0.9 and 1.5 jets to produce an ensemble of realizations for the acoustic field that we project onto a limited set of resolvent modes. In the near-field, we perform projections on a restricted acoustic output domain, $r/D = [5,6]$, while the far-field projections are performed on a Kirchhoff surface comprising a 100-diameter arc centered at the nozzle. This allows the LES realizations to be expressed in the resolvent basis via a data-deduced, low-rank, cross-spectral density matrix. We find that a single resolvent mode reconstructs the most energetic regions of the acoustic field across Strouhal numbers, $St = [0-1]$, and azimuthal wavenumbers, $m=[0,2]$. Finally, we present a simple function that results in a rank-1 resolvent model agreeing within 2dB of the peak noise for both jets.

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Closure mechanism of the A1 and A2 modes in jet screech

This paper explores the screech closure mechanism for different axisymmetric modes in shock-containing jets. While many of the discontinuities in tonal frequency exhibited by screeching jets can be associated with a change in the azimuthal mode, there has to date been no explanation for the existence of multiple axisymmetric modes at different frequencies. This paper provides just such an explanation. As shown in previous works, specific wavenumbers arise from the interaction of waves in the flow with the shocks. This provides new paths for driving upstream-travelling waves that can potentially close the resonance loop. Predictions using locally parallel and spatially periodic linear stability analyses and the wavenumber spectrum of the shock-cell structure suggest that the A1 mode resonance is closed by a wave generated when the Kelvin-Helmholtz mode interacts with the leading wavenumber of the shock-cell structure. The A2 mode is closed by a wave that arises due to interaction between the Kelvin-Helmholtz wave and a secondary wavenumber peak, which arises from the spatial variation of the shock-cell wavelength. The predictions are shown to closely match experimental data, and possible justifications for the dominance of each mode are provided based on the growth rates of the absolute instability.

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Resolvent-based estimation of turbulent channel flow using wall measurements

We employ a resolvent-based methodology to estimate velocity and pressure fluctuations within turbulent channel flows at friction Reynolds numbers of approximately 180, 550 and 1000 using measurements of shear stress and pressure at the walls, taken from direct numerical simulation (DNS) databases. Martini et al. (J. Fluid Mech., vol. 900, 2021, A2) showed that the resolvent-based estimator is optimal when the true space-time forcing statistics are utilized, thus providing an upper bound for the accuracy of any linear estimator. We use this framework to determine the flow structures that can be linearly estimated from wall measurements, and we characterize these structures and the estimation errors in both physical and wavenumber space. We also compare these results to those obtained using approximate forcing models - an eddy-viscosity model and white-noise forcing - and demonstrate the significant benefit of using true forcing statistics. All models lead to accurate results up to the buffer-layer, but only using the true forcing statistics allows accurate estimation of large-scale log-layer structures, with significant correlation between the estimates and DNS results throughout the channel. The eddy-viscosity model displays an intermediate behaviour, which may be related to its ability to partially capture the forcing colour. Our results show that structures that leave a footprint on the channel walls can be accurately estimated using the linear resolvent-based methodology, and the presence of large-scale wall-attached structures enables accurate estimations through the logarithmic layer.

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Absolute instability in shock-containing jets

We present an analysis of the linear stability characteristics of shock-containing jets. The flow is linearised around a spatially periodic mean, which acts as a surrogate for a mean flow with a shock-cell structure, leading to a set of partial differential equations with periodic coefficients in space. Disturbances are written using the Floquet ansatz and Fourier modes in the streamwise direction, leading to an eigenvalue problem for the Floquet exponent. The characteristics of the solution are directly compared to the locally parallel case, and some of the features are similar. The inclusion of periodicity induces minor changes in the growth rate and phase velocity of the relevant modes for small shock amplitudes. On the other hand, the eigenfunctions are now subject to modulation related to the periodicity of the flow. Analysis of the spatio-temporal growth rates led to the identification of a saddle point between the Kelvin-Helmholtz mode and the guided jet mode, characterising an absolute instability mechanism. Frequencies and mode shapes related to the saddle points for two conditions (associated with axisymmetric and helical modes) are compared with screech frequencies and the most energetic coherent structures of screeching jets, resulting in a good agreement for both. The analysis shows that a periodic shock-cell structure has an impulse response that grows upstream, leading to oscillator behaviour. The results suggest that screech can occur in the absence of a nozzle, and that the upstream reflection condition is not essential for screech frequency selection. Connections to previous models are also discussed.

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Nozzle dynamics and wavepackets in turbulent jets

We study a turbulent jet issuing from a cylindrical nozzle to characterise coherent structures evolving in the turbulent boundary layer. The analysis is performed using data from a large-eddy simulation of a Mach 0.4 jet. Azimuthal decomposition of the velocity field in the nozzle shows that turbulent kinetic energy predominantly resides in high azimuthal wavenumbers; the first three azimuthal wavenumbers, that are important for sound generation, contain much lower, but non-zero amplitudes. Using two-point statistics, low azimuthal modes in the nozzle boundary layer are shown to exhibit significant correlations with modes of same order in the free-jet region. Spectral Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (SPOD) is used to distill a low-rank approximation of the flow dynamics. This reveals the existence of tilted coherent structures within the nozzle boundary layer and shows that these are coupled with wavepackets in the jet. The educed nozzle boundary-layer structures are modelled using a local linear stability analysis of the nozzle mean flow. Projection of the leading SPOD modes on the stability eigenmodes shows that the organised boundary-layer structures can be modelled using a small number of stable eigenmodes of the boundary-layer branch of the eigenspectrum, indicating the prevalence of non-modal effects. Finally local and global resolvent analysis of the mean-flow are performed. It is shown that the most-energetic nozzle structures can be successfully described with optimal resolvent response modes, whose associated forcing modes are observed to tilt against the nozzle boundary-layer, suggesting that the Orr mechanism underpins these organised, turbulent, boundary-layer structures.

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Wavepacket Modelling of Broadband Shock-Associated Noise in Supersonic Jets

We present a two-point model to investigate the underlying source mechanisms for broadband shock-associated noise (BBSAN) in shock-containing supersonic jets. In the model presented, the generation of BBSAN is assumed to arise from the non-linear interaction between downstream-propagating coherent structures with the quasi-periodic shock cells in the jet plume. The turbulent perturbations are represented as axially-extended wavepackets and the shock cells are modelled as a set of stationary waveguide modes. Unlike previous BBSAN models, the physical parameters describing the hydrodynamic components are not scaled using the acoustic field. Instead, the characteristics of both the turbulent and shock components are educed from large-eddy simulation and particle image velocimetry datasets. Apart from using extracted data, a reduced-order description of the wavepacket structure is obtained using parabolised stability equations (PSE). The validity of the model is tested by comparing far-field sound pressure level predictions to azimuthally-decomposed experimental acoustic data from a cold Mach 1.5 underexpanded jet. At polar angles and frequencies where BBSAN dominates, good agreement in spectral shape and sound amplitude is observed for the first three azimuthal modes. Encouraging comparisons of the radiated noise spectra, in both frequency and amplitude, reinforce the suitability of using reduced-order linear wavepacket sources for predicting BBSAN peaks. On the other hand, the mismatch in sound amplitude at interpeak frequencies reveals the role of wavepacket jitter in the underlying sound generating mechanism.

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Accurate Frequency Domain Identification of ODEs with Arbitrary Signals

The difficulty in frequency domain identification is that frequency components of arbitrary inputs and outputs are not related by the system's transfer function if signals are windowed. When rectangular windows are used, it is well known that this difference is related to transient effects that can be estimated alongside the systems' parameters windows. In this work, we generalize the approach for arbitrary windows, showing that signal windowing introduces additional terms in the system's equations. The formalism is useful for frequency-domain input-output analysis of a system, and also for system identification. For the latter application, the approach considerably reduces aliasing effects and allows the computation of the associated correction terms, reducing the number of parameters that need to be estimated. The system identification approach has features of the modulating-function technique, filtering out the effects of initial conditions while retaining the spectral interpretation of frequency-domain methods.

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Closed-loop control of forced turbulent jets

Closed-loop control of turbulent flows is a challenging problem with important practical and fundamental implications. We perform closed-loop control of forced, turbulent jets based on a wave-cancellation strategy. The study is motivated by the success of recent studies in applying wave cancellation to control instability waves in transitional boundary layers and free-shear flows. Using a control law obtained through a system-identification technique, we successfully implement wave-cancellation-based, closed-loop control, achieving order-of-magnitude attenuations of velocity fluctuations. Control is shown to reduce fluctuation levels over an extensive streamwise range.

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Waves in screeching jets

The interaction between various wavelike structures in screeching jets is considered via both experimental measurements and linear stability theory. Velocity snapshots of screeching jets are used to produce a reduced order model of the screech cycle via proper orthogonal decomposition. Streamwise Fourier filtering is then applied to isolate the negative and positive wavenumber components, which for the waves of interest in this jet correspond to upstream and downstream-travelling waves. A global stability analysis on an experimentally derived base flow is conducted, demonstrating a close match to the results obtained via experiment, indicating that the mechanisms considered here are well represented in a linear framework. In both analyses, three distinct wavelike structures are evident. These three waves are those first shown by Tam & Hu (1989) to be supported by a cylindrical vortex sheet. One is the Kelvin-Helmholtz mode. Another is the upstream-travelling guided jet mode that has been a topic of recent discussion. The third component, with positive phase velocity, has not previously been identified in screeching jets. We provide evidence that this downstream-travelling wave is a duct-like mode similar to that recently identified in high-subsonic jets by Towne et al. (2017). We further demonstrate that both of the latter two waves are generated by the interaction between the Kelvin-Helmholtz wavepacket and the shock cells in the flow, according to a theory first proposed in Tam & Tanna (1982). Finally, we consider the periodic spatial modulation of the coherent velocity fluctuation evident in screeching jets, and show that this modulation is the result of the superposition of the three wavelike structures, with no evidence that the shocks in the flow modulate the growth of the Kelvin-Helmholtz wavepacket.

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Resolvent-based modelling of coherent wavepackets in a turbulent jet

Coherent turbulent wave-packet structures in a jet at Reynolds number 460000 and Mach number 0.4 are extracted from experimental measurements and are modeled as linear fluctuations around the mean flow. The linear model is based on harmonic optimal forcing structures and their associated flow response at individual Strouhal numbers, obtained from analysis of the global linear resolvent operator. These forcing-response wave packets ("resolvent modes") are first discussed with regard to relevant physical mechanisms that provide energy gain of flow perturbations in the jet. Modal shear instability and the nonmodal Orr mechanism are identified as dominant elements, cleanly separated between the optimal and suboptimal forcing-response pairs. A theoretical development in the framework of spectral covariance dynamics then explicates the link between linear harmonic forcing-response structures and the cross-spectral density (CSD) of stochastic turbulent fluctuations. A low-rank model of the CSD at given Strouhal number is formulated from a truncated set of linear resolvent modes. Corresponding experimental CSD matrices are constructed from extensive two-point velocity measurements. Their eigenmodes (spectral proper orthogonal or SPOD modes) represent coherent wave-packet structures, and these are compared to their counterparts obtained from the linear model. Close agreement is demonstrated in the range of "preferred mode" Strouhal numbers, around a value of 0.4, between the leading coherent wave-packet structures as educed from the experiment and from the linear resolvent-based model.

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Jet-edge interaction tones

Motivated by the problem of jet-flap interaction noise, we study the tonal dynamics that occur when a sharp edge is placed in the hydrodynamic nearfield of an isothermal turbulent jet. We perform hydrodynamic and acoustic pressure measurements in order to characterise the tones as a function of Mach number and streamwise edge position. The distribution of spectral peaks observed, as a function of Mach number, cannot be explained using the usual edge-tone scenario, in which resonance is underpinned by coupling between downstream-travelling Kelvin-Helmholtz wavepackets and upstream-travelling sound waves. We show, rather, that the strongest tones are due to coupling between the former and upstream-travelling jet modes recently studied by Towne et al. (2017) and Schmidt et al. (2017). We also study the band-limited nature of the resonance, showing a high-frequency cut-off to be due to the frequency dependence of the upstream-travelling waves. At high Mach number these become evanescent above a certain frequency, whereas at low Mach number they become progressively trapped with increasing frequency, a consequence of which is their not being reflected in the nozzle plane. Additionally, a weaker, low-frequency, forced-resonance regime is identified that involves the same upstream travelling jet modes but that couple, in this instance, with downstream-travelling sound waves. It is suggested that the existence of two resonance regimes may be due to the non-modal nature of wavepacket dynamics at low-frequency.

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Qualitative dynamics of wavepackets in turbulent jets

It has long been established that turbulent jets comprise large-scale coherent structures, now more commonly referred to as "wavepackets". These structures exhibit a remarkable spatio-temporal organisation, despite turbulence. In this work we analyse, from a qualitative point of view, the temporal dynamics of axisymmetric wavepackets educed, experimentally, from subsonic iso-thermal jets. We use the data presented by, where time-series of the wavepackets are extracted at different streamwise locations. A thorough analysis is performed, statistical tools are used for estimating the embedding and correlation dimensions characterising the dynamical system. System identification is used for computing nonlinear surrogate models. Finally, control-oriented linear models are computed. The goal of the contribution is to assess the extent to which non-linear models are necessary, or appropriate, for description of the temporal wave-packet dynamics and to provide a complementary perspective to the current modelling.

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