arXiv subjects

Shenda Hong

Publications and source records attributed to Shenda Hong.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

ECG2Gene: Deep Learning-Based Germline Tumor Susceptibility Gene Risk Assessment Using Electrocardiograms

Electrocardiograms (ECGs) may contain physiological information related to hereditary cancer susceptibility, but its relationship with future cancer risk remains unclear. Here, we present ECG2Gene, a two-stage deep-learning framework that derives digital phenotypes related to germline tumor susceptibility from routine 12-lead ECGs and predicts future cancer risk. In Stage 1, carrier status for pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in ATM, BRIP1, CHEK2, PALB2, BRCA1, and BRCA2 supervises a multitask model that generates six continuous ECG-derived gene scores. In Stage 2, XGBoost integrates these scores with clinical variables to predict subsequent breast and ovarian cancer in women and prostate cancer in men. We also introduce ECG-Wide Association Analysis (EWAS) to characterize associations between ECG-derived gene scores and ECG waveforms. Across the clinical feature combinations evaluated in UK Biobank, the best-performing sex-specific models achieve AUROCs of 0.683, 0.633, and 0.660 for breast, ovarian, and prostate cancer, respectively. In external evaluations, models combining ECG-derived gene scores with age achieve prostate cancer AUROCs of 0.709 and 0.579 among men in the overall China Kadoorie Biobank and MIMIC-IV-ECG cohorts, respectively. ECG2Gene links genetically supervised ECG phenotyping and waveform association analysis to future cancer outcomes, demonstrating the potential of routine ECGs combined with clinical information for non-invasive, opportunistic cancer risk assessment.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

When Does Better Acceptance Pay? A Controlled Study of Speculative Decoding

The throughput gains of speculative decoding depend on the trade-off between acceptance length and execution latency. We ask when additional acceptance is worth the cost of obtaining it. We establish a comparison protocol spanning training, inference, and evaluation, remeasuring released checkpoints and retraining six drafter recipes on shared target-generated data across ten benchmarks and two target models. Alignment changes the picture: gaps that appear large in published comparisons shrink substantially under shared training and inference conditions. This narrowing motivates two deeper questions: how is acceptance improved at different costs, and when do these gains improve throughput? We find that acceptance can be improved through nearly free objective and context changes or more expensive token-to-token conditioning, which pays off most clearly under sampled drafting. DCore illustrates the former route as a strong baseline with little additional measured drafting overhead. The payoff is conditional: task uncertainty and serving conditions affect acceptance returns, execution costs, and the preferred drafter and budget. These findings inform future drafter design and deployment choices.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2026

ECG-SDI: Single-lead Electrocardiogram Enables Continuous Sleep Depth Index Profiling and Scalable Digital Biomarkers for Sleep Health

Conventional sleep staging provides a coarse-grained representation that obscures within-stage depth variation. We developed ECG-SDI, a single-lead electrocardiography (ECG) framework for continuous sleep-depth profiling and digital biomarker extraction. Using 12,392 overnight polysomnographic recordings, we trained and validated a two-stage deep learning model supervised by conventional sleep-stage labels. Correlations with ordered stages excluding rapid eye movement (REM) sleep were 0.828 in the pooled internal test set and 0.848 in the external Cleveland Family Study; corresponding REM classification AUROCs were 0.954 and 0.977. Overnight trajectories captured within-stage variation. Biomarker-based phenotyping identified a disturbed subtype associated with poorer subjective sleep quality and higher all-cause mortality in the Sleep Heart Health Study (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.20; 95% CI, 1.05-1.38). Among 507 participants with paired recordings before and after continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP), normalized sleep-depth area increased by 6.1% and shallow-sleep burden below 0.3 decreased by 16.0%. Exploratory analyses linked reductions in approximate entropy and depth variability to reduced oxygen desaturation and increased sleep efficiency, respectively (Spearman rho = 0.24 and 0.12); both associations remained positive after covariate adjustment. Mean ECG-SDI within N2 increased by 0.017 (95% CI, 0.004-0.030). A wearable proof-of-concept illustrated the acquisition-to-report workflow. These findings support ECG-based sleep phenotyping and further evaluation of CPAP response monitoring at home.

eess.SP↗

arXiv2026

PPGFlowECG: Latent Rectified Flow with Cross-Modal Encoding for PPG-Guided ECG Generation and Cardiovascular Disease Detection

Electrocardiography (ECG) is the clinical gold standard for cardiovascular disease (CVD) assessment, yet continuous monitoring is constrained by the need for dedicated hardware and trained personnel. Photoplethysmography (PPG) is ubiquitous in wearable devices and readily scalable, but it lacks electrophysiological specificity, limiting diagnostic reliability. While generative methods aim to translate PPG into clinically useful ECG signals, existing approaches are limited by the misalignment of physiological semantics in generative models and the complexity of modeling in high-dimensional signals. To address these limitations, we propose PPGFlowECG, a two-stage framework that aligns PPG and ECG in a shared latent space using the CardioAlign Encoder and then synthesizes ECGs with latent rectified flow. We further provide a formal analysis of this coupling, showing that the CardioAlign Encoder is necessary to guarantee stable and semantically consistent ECG synthesis under our formulation. Extensive experiments on four datasets demonstrate improved synthesis fidelity and downstream diagnostic utility. These results indicate that PPGFlowECG supports scalable, wearable-first CVD screening when standard ECG acquisition is unavailable.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

PulseBound: Future-Beat State Forecasting Under an Explicit Information Boundary

Predictive representation learning from photoplethysmography (PPG) can violate causal information access even with causal attention, as normalization, nonlocal transforms, or companion views may depend on withheld samples. We introduce PulseBound, a PPG representation learner combining physiologically structured future-beat prediction with an explicit stored-window information boundary. A content-independent cutoff separates the visible prefix from the prediction target. Prefix-only normalization, suffix replacement before derived-view construction, and aligned masking ensure that encoder inputs depend only on the visible prefix and cutoff. This yields stored-suffix invariance: with fixed model state, randomness, prefix, and cutoff, changing the stored suffix cannot change the forecast context. A shared horizon-conditioned head predicts nine rhythm and morphology descriptors for up to four extractor-valid future beats, using elementwise validity masks; optional ECG-derived pulse-arrival-time supervision is restricted to training. On MIMIC and VitalDB groups held out from PulseBound backbone pretraining, PulseBound reduces nine-state transformed-space MAE relative to last-visible-beat persistence by 28.06% and 22.22%, respectively, with gains in MAE, MAE-Skill, and Spearman correlation across all 40 source-cutoff-horizon cells. In a separate comparison of seven models on 13 downstream tasks, PulseBound achieves the best mean on nine frozen linear-probe and seven full-fine-tuning tasks. Stored-suffix interventions cause zero recorded changes in forecast contexts or predictions, with zero suffix-input gradients at audited precision under the stored-window interface. These findings separate three testable aspects of predictive physiological representation learning: information access, supervised future structure, and transfer.

cs.AI↗

arXiv2026

Improving Fairness of Large Language Model-Based ICU Mortality Prediction via Case-Based Prompting

Accurately predicting mortality risk in intensive care unit (ICU) patients is critical for clinical decision-making. Large language models (LLMs) are increasingly explored for clinical prediction using structured medical data, but their outputs may exhibit demographic disparities. Mitigating such disparities without degrading predictive performance remains challenging. We systematically investigate demographic bias in LLM-based ICU mortality prediction and propose Case-Based Prompting (CAP), a training-free framework designed to improve the empirical balance between predictive performance and subgroup fairness. CAP retrieves clinically similar historical misprediction and demographic-sensitive cases with known outcomes and incorporates them as case-level contextual evidence. We further evaluate model discrimination, subgroup fairness, and feature-dependence consistency. On MIMIC-IV, CAP improved AUROC from 0.806 to 0.873 and AUPRC from 0.497 to 0.694 compared with the Baseline Prompt. CAP also reduced several subgroup disparities, particularly for sex and White-Black comparisons, although age-related disparities remained non-negligible. Controlled demographic-information ablations showed that removing demographic information did not uniformly improve both predictive performance and subgroup fairness, indicating distinct performance-fairness patterns rather than a uniform benefit from demographic suppression. Feature-dependence analysis showed generally consistent expressed clinical factor patterns across demographic subgroups. These findings suggest that CAP is a promising inference-time strategy for LLM-based clinical prediction under the evaluated retrospective setting. Further validation across additional LLMs, external datasets, and prospective clinical scenarios is required before deployment.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Large language models in medical time series analysis

Medical time series (MedTS), including electrocardiograms (ECG), electroencephalograms (EEG), photoplethysmography (PPG), and vital-sign recordings, are central to clinical diagnosis and health monitoring. As large language models (LLMs) have advanced, a growing body of work has examined how their reasoning, generation, and knowledge-integration capabilities can support MedTS analysis. Yet existing studies remain scattered, and the field still lacks a clear view of how these models should be designed, integrated into clinical workflows, and evaluated. This review synthesizes recent work on large language models for medical time series analysis (MedTSLLMs), covering both methodological progress and issues related to real-world deployment. We review model architectures, data resources, and processing pipelines, and prompt design strategies adapted for diverse clinical scenarios. We further organize existing MedTS applications, ranging from diagnostic interpretation and report generation to longitudinal health monitoring and physiological signal synthesis, highlighting task-specific design choices, common evaluation protocols, and empirical findings reported across studies. By bringing together current practices and open challenges, this review aims to provide a clearer foundation for developing, evaluating, and deploying MedTSLLMs responsibly in healthcare. We also maintain a regularly updated list of MedTSLLM studies and resources at: https://github.com/hy727/MedTSLLM-Review.

eess.SP↗

arXiv2026

Fine-tuning an ECG Foundation Model to Predict Coronary CT Angiography Outcomes

Coronary artery disease (CAD) remains a major global public health burden, yet scalable pre-imaging risk stratification tools are limited. In this multicenter study, we developed and validated an artificial intelligence-enabled electrocardiography (AI-ECG) model using coronary computed tomographic angiography (CCTA) as the anatomical reference to predict vessel-specific hemodynamically significant stenosis ($\geq 70\%$ for RCA, LAD, LCX; $\geq 50\%$ for LM). The model was evaluated in internal and external cohorts, clinically normal ECGs, and prespecified demographic and clinical subgroups. It showed discrimination across vessels in internal validation and consistent external and normal ECG performance. Predicted probabilities increased with CCTA-defined stenosis severity and were converted into vessel-specific low-, intermediate-, and high-risk strata. Calibration and decision curve analyses supported its clinical utility. Integration with guideline-based pre-test probability improved risk reclassification, enhanced rule-out performance, and reduced the gray-zone proportion. In longitudinal follow-up, model-defined risk groups showed clear separation in major adverse cardiovascular events. Waveform- and attribution-based analyses identified structured ECG differences and physiologically meaningful signal regions linked to high-risk predictions. These results support AI-ECG as a feasible tool for pre-imaging risk stratification and clinical triage, warranting prospective validation in broader clinical settings.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

Development and Validation of a Dynamic Kidney Failure Prediction Model based on Deep Learning: A Real-World Study with External Validation

Background: Chronic kidney disease (CKD), a progressive disease with high morbidity and mortality, has become a significant global public health problem. Most existing models are static and fail to capture temporal trends in disease progression, limiting their ability to inform timely interventions. We address this gap by developing a dynamic model that leverages common longitudinal clinical indicators from real-world electronic health records (EHRs) for real-time kidney failure prediction. Findings: A retrospective cohort of 4,587 patients from the CK-NET-Yinzhou Dataset was used for model development (2,752 patients for training, 917 patients for validation) and internal validation (918 patients). External validation was performed in three cohorts: the prospective PKUFH cohort (934 patients), the C-STRIDE cohort (1,570 patients), and the iCaReMe cohort (498 patients). The model demonstrated competitive performance across the internal and three external validation cohorts, achieving AUROCs of 0.9311 (95% CI, 0.8873-0.9749), 0.8141 (0.7728-0.8554), 0.8427 (0.8213-0.8641), and 0.9359 (0.9031-0.9687), respectively. The model also demonstrated progressively improving dynamic predictions, good calibration, and clinically consistent interpretability. KFDeep has been deployed on an open-access website and in primary care settings. Interpretation: The KFDeep model enables dynamic prediction of kidney failure without increasing clinical examination costs. It has been integrated into existing hospital systems, providing physicians with a continuously updated decision-support tool in routine care.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Smartwatch Photoplethysmography-Derived Heart Age via ECG-Guided Cross-Modal Pretraining as a Digital Biomarker of Vascular Aging

Digital biomarkers of cardiovascular aging, often termed heart or vascular age, have been widely studied, but most rely on resting electrocardiography (ECG), imaging, or specialized vascular assessments. Evidence linking wearable photoplethysmography (PPG) to arterial stiffness and hypertension remains limited. We developed an ECG-guided cross-modal framework that uses synchronized smartwatch ECG to enhance PPG representation learning during pretraining while requiring only PPG at inference. The study included three OPPO cohorts across China, comprising 581,804 participants and 7,452,131 recordings. The Vascular Health Study cohort supported ECG-PPG self-supervised pretraining, fine-tuning, and internal validation, while two external cohorts assessed associations with pulse wave velocity (PWV) and prevalent hypertension. Combining subject-aware learning with ECG-PPG contrastive alignment, the PPG-only model achieved subject-level mean absolute errors of 5.895 years (Pearson r=0.819) in the PWV cohort and 4.344 years (r=0.800) in the home blood pressure monitoring cohort. Aggregating repeated recordings further improved short-term stability. After adjustment for chronological age, heart age gap was associated with PWV (partial r=0.2627, P<0.001); each 1-year increase corresponded to 0.062 m/s higher PWV, and accelerated versus decelerated heart aging was associated with 0.91 m/s higher adjusted PWV. Each 1-SD increase in adjusted heart age gap was associated with greater odds of prevalent hypertension (OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.49-1.99), while the highest versus lowest quartile had an OR of 4.25. These findings support smartwatch PPG-derived heart age gap as a scalable digital biomarker of arterial stiffness and prevalent hypertension.

eess.SP↗

arXiv2026

Simultaneous Polysomnography and Cardiotocography Reveal Temporal Correlation Between Maternal Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Fetal Hypoxia

Background: Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome (OSAS) during pregnancy is common and can negatively affect fetal outcomes. However, studies on the immediate effects of maternal hypoxia on fetal heart rate (FHR) changes are lacking. Methods: We used time-synchronized polysomnography (PSG) and cardiotocography (CTG) data from two cohorts to analyze the correlation between maternal hypoxia and FHR changes (accelerations or decelerations). Maternal hypoxic event characteristics were analyzed using generalized linear modeling (GLM) to assess their associations with different FHR changes. Results: A total of 118 pregnant women participated. FHR changes were significantly associated with maternal hypoxia, primarily characterized by accelerations. A longer hypoxic duration correlated with more significant FHR accelerations (P < 0.05), while prolonged hypoxia and greater SpO2 drop were linked to FHR decelerations (P < 0.05). Both cohorts showed a transient increase in FHR during maternal hypoxia, which returned to baseline after the event resolved. Conclusion: Maternal hypoxia significantly affects FHR, suggesting that maternal OSAS may contribute to fetal hypoxia. These findings highlight the importance of maternal-fetal interactions and provide insights for future interventions.

eess.SP↗

arXiv2026

EchoBridge: Long-Tail-Aware ECG-Echocardiography Text Alignment for Echocardiography-Derived Cardiac Findings

Standardized echocardiography conclusions provide meaningful supervision for learning ECG representations of echocardiography-derived cardiac findings. Global ECG--text alignment may entangle modality-specific factors, while long-tailed finding distributions provide sparse positive supervision for low-prevalence conditions. We propose EchoBridge with Complementary Shared--Private Projection (CSPP) and Adaptive Prototype Boundary Calibration (APBC). CSPP maps each modality into shared and auxiliary private projections, reduces directional redundancy via within-modality orthogonality, and bidirectionally aligns normalized shared projections. APBC organizes the shared hypersphere with class-specific prototypes, training-frequency-adaptive angular margins, and spherical Riesz repulsion. We evaluate EchoBridge on EchoNext-Mini and independent PKUPH and SHTMU cohorts under four protocols: prompt-based inference without downstream classifier training, in-domain frozen linear probing, target-domain cross-center frozen linear probing, and source-only cross-center transfer, supplemented by finding-specific analyses. EchoBridge improves classifier-free AUROC, AUPRC, and F1 over the strongest baselines by 7.88, 5.61, and 4.54 points, respectively, and achieves the highest point estimates across all in-domain and target-domain probing budgets and both source-only transfer cohorts. Finding-specific analyses show gains for most conditions, including several low-prevalence valvular findings.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

Aortic Valve Disease Screening from PPG via Physiology-Guided Self-Supervised Learning

Aortic valve disease (AVD) represents a major public health burden, while its diagnosis relies on echocardiography, which is limited by cost and specialist expertise, restricting scalable screening and risk stratification. Existing portable sensing modalities are constrained by indirect representations or acquisition dependencies. In this context, photoplethysmography (PPG), a widely available optical signal capturing peripheral hemodynamic dynamics, provides a scalable physiological measurement. However, the scarcity of clinically labeled PPG data severely constrains the development of effective data-driven models. To address this limitation, we propose Physiology-Guided Self-Supervised Learning (PG-SSL), leveraging approximately 170,000 unlabeled UK Biobank PPG recordings. PG-SSL constructs physiologically derived pseudo-labels based on clinically motivated waveform phenotypes associated with aortic stenosis (AS) and aortic regurgitation (AR), enabling large-scale pretraining without AVD-specific labels. Following fine-tuning on a small labeled cohort, the model achieved AUROCs of 0.8025 for AS and 0.7669 for AR. Further analyses demonstrated robustness under clinical confounding and covariate-balanced evaluation, as well as significant longitudinal associations with incident AVD events. This study demonstrates the feasibility of PG-SSL for leveraging large-scale unlabeled physiological signals under clinically labeled data-scarce conditions. The proposed approach provides a useful strategy for improving low-cost PPG-based screening and risk enrichment for clinically recognized AVD.

eess.SP↗

arXiv2026

ImputeECG: Deep Learning Reconstruction of Complete 12-Lead Electrocardiograms from Incomplete Recordings for Cardiac Assessment

Complete digital 12-lead electrocardiograms (ECGs) are essential for AI-enabled cardiovascular assessment, yet many clinical ECG records, particularly those digitized from ECG images, remain incomplete because of short display formats, incomplete waveform digitization, lead loss, or signal corruption. We developed ImputeECG, a mask-conditioned one-dimensional Transformer autoencoder that completes 12-lead, 10-s ECGs while retaining all observed samples. The model was trained on PTB-XL and evaluated on PTB-XL and CPSC2018 under simulated incomplete settings, with additional real-world validation in a 43,633-record Kailuan clinical cohort after ECG image digitization. Metrics were computed over originally missing regions, with analyses of morphology and downstream diagnostic utility. On PTB-XL, ImputeECG reduced missing-region MAE by 41.7-51.0% and MSE by 54.0-63.7% versus the strongest baseline, with lower errors in R-peak timing, RR interval, QRS duration, QT interval, and P-wave, QRS-complex, and T-wave reconstruction. On CPSC2018, ImputeECG reduced MAE by 49.7-51.9%, supporting external generalization. In downstream multi-label classification, ImputeECG restored performance to 92.28% AUROC and 33.88% AUPRC in the most incomplete PTB-XL setting, approaching complete-ECG performance. On CPSC2018, completed ECGs achieved 94.75-95.89% AUROC and 78.83-81.86% AUPRC across settings. In Kailuan, ECG completion improved zero-shot sex prediction AUROC from 82.6% to 85.8% and reduced age prediction MAE from 10.72 to 9.87 years after image-based ECG digitization. These findings support ECG completion as a practical strategy for converting incomplete ECG records into AI-ready 12-lead, 10-s digital signals and extending the usable scope of ECG archives for digital cardiac assessment.

cs.LG↗

arXiv2026

ECGFlowCMR: Pretraining with ECG-Generated Cine CMR Helps Cardiac Disease Classification and Phenotype Prediction

Cardiac Magnetic Resonance (CMR) imaging provides a comprehensive assessment of cardiac structure and function but remains constrained by high acquisition costs and reliance on expert annotations, limiting the availability of large-scale labeled datasets. In contrast, electrocardiograms (ECGs) are inexpensive, widely accessible, and offer a promising modality for conditioning the generative synthesis of cine CMR. To this end, we propose ECGFlowCMR, a novel ECG-to-CMR generative framework that integrates a Phase-Aware Masked Autoencoder (PA-MAE) and an Anatomy-Motion Disentangled Flow (AMDF) to address two fundamental challenges: (1) the cross-modal temporal mismatch between multi-beat ECG recordings and single-cycle CMR sequences, and (2) the anatomical observability gap due to the limited structural information inherent in ECGs. Extensive experiments on the UK Biobank and a proprietary clinical dataset demonstrate that ECGFlowCMR can generate realistic cine CMR sequences from ECG inputs, enabling scalable pretraining and improving performance on downstream cardiac disease classification and phenotype prediction tasks.

eess.IV↗

arXiv2026

MammoExpert: Benchmarking Chain-of-Thought Reasoning in Mammography Diagnosis

Mammography is an essential tool for breast cancer detection, with millions of examinations conducted annually. However, publicly available high-quality mammography datasets for AI development remain limited in both scale and annotation richness, particularly regarding pathological subtype coverage and structured diagnostic reasoning annotations. In this paper, we present MammoExpert, the first mammography dataset with Chain-of-Thought reasoning annotations across three diagnostic phases: (i) primal observation, (ii) factual assessment, and (iii) diagnostic synthesis. Comprising 2,379 mammography images covering 67 WHO-classified histopathology subtypes, each exam provides 42 radiographic features annotated by nine senior radiologists. We evaluate its performance on the breast lesion classification task, demonstrating superior accuracy and reasonability compared to existing classification models. Combining public dataset CBIS-DDSM with MammoExpert yields 7.1\% classification accuracy improvement, while the training model to learn CoT reasoning achieves another 4\% gain on the MammoExpert test set. Similar improvements are observed on INBreast and Vindr datasets, where the full approach yields accuracy gains of 6.9\% and 6.7\%, respectively. MammoExpert can serve as a benchmark for interpretable breast lesion diagnosis through explicit CoT reasoning.

cs.CV↗

arXiv2026

UniECG: Understanding and Generating ECG in One Unified Model

Electrocardiogram (ECG) interpretation is a fundamental skill in medical education, yet students often need more than static examples to connect waveform evidence with diagnostic reasoning. This paper presents UniECG as a step toward interactive ECG education. UniECG supports two complementary learning interactions: given an ECG signal or image, it generates an evidence-based explanation; given a textual learning objective, it generates a corresponding ECG signal example for case-based learning. The model follows a two-stage design. First, it learns grounded ECG explanation from ECG signal--image--text data. Second, it introduces special ECG generation tokens and aligns their hidden representations with a pretrained text-conditioned ECG diffusion model, enabling controllable signal-level ECG generation. We evaluate UniECG through grounded ECG explanation and generation-oriented qualitative analysis, examining its potential to support explanation and case-based learning. UniECG is intended as an educational aid and a research step toward interactive AI-assisted ECG learning, rather than a clinically validated diagnostic system.

cs.CL↗

arXiv2026

CausalMoE: A Billion-Scale Multimodal Foundation Model for Granger Causal Discovery with Pattern-Routed Heterogeneous Experts

Granger Causal Discovery (GCD) is fundamental for analyzing temporal dependencies in complex systems. However, existing neural GCD methods predominantly rely on a "one-size-fits-all" paradigm, struggling to capture distribution shifts and dynamic regime changes inherent in real-world time series. This often leads to entangled representations and spurious causal graphs. In this paper, we propose CausalMoE, a billion-scale multimodal Granger causal foundation model that explicitly models patch-level heterogeneity. CausalMoE introduces a Pattern-Routed Mixture of Heterogeneous Experts, which dynamically identifies latent temporal patterns and routes patches to specialized domain experts, effectively decoupling regime-specific mechanisms from shared dynamics. To ensure interpretable graph recovery, we design a Causality-Aware Self-Attention mechanism operating across variables, yielding sparse Granger causal graphs via proximal optimization. Furthermore, CausalMoE is the first to integrate LLMs and VLMs to align numerical signals with textual and visual priors, regularizing causal estimation in complex scenarios. Extensive experiments demonstrate that CausalMoE establishes a new state-of-the-art on fully supervised benchmarks, while effectively generalizing to few-shot settings where traditional methods fail.

cs.LG↗