arXiv subjects

Soumen Mandal

Publications and source records attributed to Soumen Mandal.

At least 19 recordsLinked to original sources

arXiv2026

Growth of superconducting boron doped diamond on 4inch silicon wafers

Superconducting boron-doped diamond (BDD) films were grown on 4-inch silicon wafers by microwave plasma chemical vapour deposition using gas-phase B/C ratios ranging from 6536 to 36421 ppm. Surface morphology, boron incorporation and superconducting properties were investigated as a function of gas-phase boron concentration. No systematic variation in apparent lateral grain size was observed across the series. Superconductivity was observed in all films except that grown at a B/C ratio of 6536 ppm within the measured temperature range down to 2 K. The superconducting transition temperature initially increased with increasing B/C ratio, reaching a maximum T$_c$ of 4.03 K at 24691 ppm, before decreasing at higher gas-phase B/C ratios. The corresponding resistive upper critical field at 2 K reached 3.091 T. Raman spectroscopy showed an increase in boron incorporation with increasing gas-phase B/C ratio up to 30303 ppm, followed by a slight decrease at 36421 ppm. Spatial measurements across the film grown at 24691 ppm showed T$_c$ values of 4.02, 4.19 and 3.33 K at the centre, intermediate and edge positions, respectively, with Raman spectroscopy showing a corresponding spatial variation in boron concentration. Comparison with previous growth on 2-inch wafers showed that substantially higher gas-phase B/C ratios were required to obtain comparable boron concentrations and superconducting properties on 4-inch wafers, indicating reduced boron incorporation efficiency during large-area growth. These results demonstrate the feasibility of producing superconducting BDD over a substantial area of a 4-inch silicon wafer while identifying boron incorporation and radial uniformity as key parameters for further wafer-scale optimisation.

cond-mat.supr-con↗

arXiv2026

Microkelvin resolution thermometry at the nanometre scale

Accurate temperature readings of transient events at the nanometer scale are challenging due to the low sensitivity of available sensors. Nanodiamonds containing nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers have been used for nanoscale thermometry in complex environments, including inside living cells. However, their performance has been limited by short coherence times and low photon counts. In this work, we use isotopically-purified dual-NV nanodiamonds and a bespoke quantum sensing chip to showcase an order of magnitude improvement in temperature measurement sensitivity compared with previous reports. We demonstrate robust temperature measurements with an error of 682 $μ$K, experimental sensitivities below 50 mK/$\surd \text{Hz}$ and a shot-noise limited sensitivity of 9.6 mK/$\surd \text{Hz}$. To confirm the utility of these high-performance nanothermometers, we quantify the temperature change induced by the thermometry measurement itself, specifically the optical excitation laser used to probe the NV spin state. In addition, we observe directly at the nanometre scale the transient heating caused by the exothermic mixing of dimethyl sulfoxide in water. Sub-millikelvin resolution and millikelvin sensitivity thermometry unlock the possibility of monitoring minute thermal fluctuations in living systems and assessing catalyst performance at the nanometre scale.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2026

Highly indistinguishable photons from a tin-vacancy spin qubit in diamond

Quantum networks promise secure communication, distributed sensing and modular quantum computing by interconnecting distant quantum nodes through photonic links. Extending such networks beyond metropolitan distances requires quantum repeaters to overcome the exponential attenuation of photons in optical fiber. Across all architectures, a key requirement is the indistinguishability of single photons, which directly impacts the fidelity of photonic operations based on two-photon interference, such as Bell-state measurements and fusion gates. Here, we demonstrate generation of highly indistinguishable single photons from a coherently excited tin-vacancy center in diamond, achieving raw Hong-Ou-Mandel interference visibilities exceeding 0.95. By separating intrinsic emitter properties from technical imperfections, we show that decoherence plays a negligible role and that the remaining limitations are predominantly technical in nature, arriving at an intrinsic indistinguishability of up to 0.999. We further show that quantum frequency conversion to the telecom C-band preserves the photon indistinguishability. In combination with the long-lived electron and nuclear spin coherence times, these results establish tin-vacancy centers in diamond as a competitive platform for long-distance quantum networks and photonic quantum information processing. We further substantiate this potential through Monte Carlo simulations of a quantum-repeater link, demonstrating that the SnV-center platform surpasses the bound set by direct transmission.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2025

Real time observation of glass-like carbon formation from SU-8 using X-ray and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy

The structural development and change in elemental composition of SU-8 3005 photoresist into glass-like carbon due to pyrolysis up to 1000~$\degree$C is investigated utilising \textit{in-situ} x-ray and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS/UPS) under ultra-high vacuum (UHV). XPS spectra were analysed in order to investigate changes to elemental composition and physical structure. Peak asymmetry in the measured C 1s spectra is found to be a clear indicator of a transition in both physical structure and increased electrical conductivity. The \textit{in-situ} XPS measurement of pyrolysis is effective in isolating changes in oxygen composition solely due to the pyrolysis process. Oxygen concentration, C 1s peak asymmetry and C 1s peak positions are strong indicators of semiconducting SU-8 transitioning to conducting glass-like carbon. For SU-8 pyrolysed above temperatures of 500~$\degree$C, a clear development is observed in the material structure and composition towards a carbon rich conducting network indicative of glass-like carbon. UPS spectra were analysed to investigate the changes in secondary electron cut-off (SECO) and valence band maximum (VBM) as the SU-8 layer is heated in UHV. The changes in SECO and VBM correlates well with the XPS data and a zero binding energy state is observed at 1000~$\degree$C.

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2025

Single photon emission from lithographically-positioned engineered nanodiamonds for cryogenic applications

Nitrogen-vacancy centres in nanodiamonds (NDs) provide a promising resource for quantum photonic systems. However, developing a technology beyond proof-of-principle physics requires optimally engineering its component parts. In this work, we present a hybrid materials platform by photolithographically positioning ball-milled isotopically-enriched NDs on broadband metal reflectors. The structure enhances the photonic collection efficiency, enabling cryogenic characterisation despite the limited numerical aperture imposed by our cryostat. Our device, with SiO$_2$ above a silver reflector, allows us to perform spectroscopic characterisation at 16 K and measure autocorrelation functions confirming single-photon emission (g$^2$(0)<0.5). Through comparative studies of similar hybrid device configurations, we can move towards optimally engineered techniques for building and analysing quantum emitters in wafer-scale photonic environments.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2023

Zeta potential and nanodiamond self assembly assisted diamond growth on lithium niobate and lithium tantalate single crystal

This study focuses on the self-assembly and subsequent diamond growth on SiO$_2$ buffered lithium niobate (LiNbO$_3$) and lithium tantalate (LiTaO$_3$) single crystals. The zeta-potential of LNO and LTO single crystal were measured as a function of pH. They were found to be negative in the pH range 3.5-9.5. The isoelectric point for LNO was found to be at pH $\sim$ 2.91 and that of LTO to be at pH $\sim$ 3.20. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy performed on the surfaces show presence of oxygen groups which may be responsible for the negative zeta potential of the crystals. Self-assembly of nanodiamond particles on LTO and LNO, using nanodiamond colloid, were studied. As expected, high nanodiamond density was seen when self-assembly was done using a positively charged nanodiamond particles. Diamond growth was attempted on the nanodiamond coated substrates but they were found to be unsuitable for direct growth due to disintegration of substrates in diamond growth conditions.. A $\sim$100nm thick silicon dioxide layer was deposited on the crystals, followed by nanodiamond self assembly and diamond growth. Thin diamond films were successfully grown on both coated crystals. The diamond quality was analysed by Raman spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy.

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2023

Long Spin Coherence and Relaxation Times in Nanodiamonds Milled from Polycrystalline $^{12}$C Diamond

The negatively charged nitrogen-vacancy centre (NV$^-$) in diamond has been utilized in a wide variety of sensing applications. The centre's long spin coherence and relaxation times ($T_2^*$, $T_2$ and $T_1$) at room temperature are crucial to this, as they often limit sensitivity. Using NV$^-$ centres in nanodiamonds allows for operations in environments inaccessible to bulk diamond, such as intracellular sensing. We report long spin coherence and relaxation times at room temperature for single NV$^-$ centres in isotopically-purified polycrystalline ball-milled nanodiamonds. Using a spin-locking pulse sequence, we observe spin coherence times, $T_2$, up 786 $\pm$ 200 $μ$s. We also measure $T_2^*$ times up to 2.06 $\pm$ 0.24 $μ$s and $T_1$ times up to 4.32 $\pm$ 0.60 ms. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy measurements show that the diamond containing the NV$^{-}$ centre with the longest $T_1$ time is smaller than 100 nm. EPR measurements give an N$_{s}$$^{0}$ concentration of 0.15 $\pm$ 0.02 ppm for the nanodiamond sample.

quant-ph↗

arXiv2022

Superconducting boron doped nanocrystalline diamond microwave coplanar resonator

A superconducting boron doped nanocrystalline diamond (B-NCD) coplanar waveguide resonator (CPR) is presented for kinetic inductance ($L_k$) and penetration depth ($λ_{\rm{L}}$) measurements at microwave frequencies of 0.4 to 1.2 GHz and at temperatures below 3 K. Using a simplified effective medium CPR approach, this work demonstrates that thin granular B-NCD films ($t\approx $ 500 nm) on Si have a large penetration depth ($λ_{\rm{L}}\approx 4.3$ to 4.4 $μ$m), and therefore an associated high kinetic inductance ($L_{k,\square} \approx $ 670 to 690 pH/$\square$). These values are much larger than those typically obtained for films on single crystal diamond which is likely due to the significant granularity of the nanocrystalline films. Based on the measured Q factors of the structure, the calculated surface resistance in this frequency range is found to be as low as $\approx$ 2 to 4 $μΩ$ at $T<2$ K, demonstrating the potential for granular B-NCD for high quality factor superconducting microwave resonators and highly sensitive kinetic inductance detectors.

cond-mat.supr-con↗

arXiv2021

Microwave plasma modelling in clamshell chemical vapour deposition diamond reactors

A microwave plasma model of a chemical vapour deposition (CVD) reactor is presented for understanding spatial heteroepitaxial growth of polycrystalline diamond on Si. This work is based on the TM0(n>1)p clamshell style reactor (Seki Diamond/ASTEX SDS 6K, Carat CTS6U, ARDIS-100 style) whereby a simplified H_2 plasma model is used to show the radial variation in growth rate over small samples with different sample holders. The model uses several steps: an electromagnetic (EM) eigenfrequency solution, a frequency-transient EM/plasma fluid solution and transient a heat transfer solution at low and high microwave power density. Experimental growths provide model validation with characterisation using Raman spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. This work demonstrates that shallow holders result in non-uniform diamond films, with a radial variation akin to the electron density and temperature distribution at the wafer surface. For the same process conditions, greater homogeneity is observed for taller holders, however, if the height is too extreme, the diamond quality reduces. From a modelling perspective, EM solutions are limited but useful for examining electric field focusing at the sample edges, resulting in accelerated diamond growth. For better accuracy, plasma fluid and heat transfer solutions are imperative for modelling spatial growth variation.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2021

Contact resistance of various metallisation schemes to superconducting boron doped diamond between 1.9 and 300 K

Diamond is a material that offers potential in numerous device applications. In particular, highly boron doped diamond is attractive due to its superconductivity and high Young's Modulus. The fabrication of stable, low resistance, ohmic contacts is essential to ensure proper device function. Previous work has established the efficacy of several methods of forming suitable contacts to diamond at room temperature and above, including carbide forming and carbon soluble metallisation schemes. Herein, the stability of several contact schemes (Ti, Cr, Mo, Ta and Pd) to highly boron doped nanocrystalline diamond was verified down to the cryogenic temperatures with modified Transmission Line Model (TLM) measurements. While all contact schemes remained ohmic, a significant temperature dependency is noted at Tc and at the lowest temperatures the contact resistances ranged from Ti/Pt/Au with ${(8.83 \pm 0.10)\times 10^{-4} \:Ω.cm}$ to Ta/Pt/Au with ${(8.07 \pm 0.62) \times 10^{-6} \:Ω.cm}$.

cond-mat.supr-con↗

arXiv2021

Surface zeta potential and diamond growth on gallium oxide single crystal

In this work a strategy to grow diamond on $β$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ has been presented. The $ζ$-potential of the $β$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ substrate was measured and it was found to be negative with an isoelectric point at pH $\sim$ 4.6. The substrates were seeded with mono-dispersed diamond solution for growth of diamond. The seeded substrates were etched when exposed to diamond growth plasma and globules of gallium could be seen on the surface. To overcome the problem $\sim$100 nm of SiO$_2$ and Al$_2$O$_3$ were deposited using atomic layer deposition. The nanodiamond seeded SiO$_2$ layer was effective in protecting the $β$-Ga$_2$O$_3$ substrate and thin diamond layers could be grown. In contrast Al$_2$O$_3$ layers were damaged when exposed to diamond growth plasma. The thin diamond layers were characterised with scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy revealed the diamond layer to be under compressive stress of 1.3 -- 2.8GPa.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2021

Thermal stress modelling of diamond on GaN/III-Nitride membranes

Diamond heat-spreaders for gallium nitride (GaN) devices currently depend upon a robust wafer bonding process. Bonding-free membrane methods demonstrate potential, however, chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of diamond directly onto a III-nitride (III-N) heterostructure membrane induces significant thermal stresses. In this work, these thermal stresses are investigated using an analytical approach, a numerical model and experimental validation. The thermal stresses are caused by the mismatch in the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) between the GaN/III-N stack, silicon (Si) and the diamond from room temperature to CVD growth temperatures. Simplified analytical wafer bow models underestimate the membrane bow for small sizes while numerical models replicate the stresses and bows with increased accuracy using temperature gradients. The largest tensile stress measured using Raman spectroscopy at room temperature was approximately 1.0 $\pm0.2$ GPa while surface profilometry shows membrane bows as large as \SI{58}{\micro\metre}. This large bow is caused by additional stresses from the Si frame in the initial heating phase which are held in place by the diamond and highlights challenges for any device fabrication using contact lithography. However, the bow can be reduced if the membrane is pre-stressed to become flat at CVD temperatures. In this way, a sufficient platform to grow diamond on GaN/III-N structures without wafer bonding can be realised.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2020

Rydberg Excitons in Synthetic Cuprous Oxide (Cu$_2$O)

High-lying Rydberg states of Mott-Wannier excitons are receiving considerable interest due to the possibility of adding long-range interactions to the physics of exciton-polaritons. Here, we study Rydberg excitation in bulk synthetic cuprous oxide grown by the optical float zone technique and compare the result with natural samples. X-ray characterization confirms both materials are mostly single crystal, and mid-infrared transmission spectroscopy revealed little difference between synthetic and natural material. The synthetic samples show principal quantum numbers up to $n=10$, exhibit additional absorption lines, plus enhanced spatial broadening and spatial inhomogeneity. Room temperature and cryogenic photoluminescence measurements reveal a significant excess of copper vacancies in the synthetic material. These measurements provide a route towards achieving \mbox{high-$n$} excitons in synthetic crystals, opening a route to scalable quantum devices.

cond-mat.mtrl-sci↗

arXiv2019

Dielectric spectroscopy of hydrogenated hexagonal boron nitride ceramics

Hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) is a critical material for 2D electronic devices for graphene and has attracted a considerable amount of attention owing to its structural similarity and semiconducting property. However, modifying its wide-band gap is a challenge. Hydrogenation is a potential method of altering the electrical properties, although is seldom experimentally measured. Here, the complex permittivity of h-BN after various hydrogen treatments have been investigated. For untreated h-BN, a frequency independent dielectric constant was measured ($\sim4.2 \pm0.2$) and an immeasurably low dielectric loss, demonstrating the ideal dielectric nature of h-BN across the $10^3$ to $10^{10}$ Hz range. However, after atomic H-plasma treatment in a microwave chemical vapour deposition (CVD) reactor, the complex permittivity amplifies dramatically, introducing dielectric dispersion through Debye-type dielectric relaxations ($\varepsilon_{\textrm{s}}\approx20\pm2$, $\varepsilon_{\infty}\approx4.2\pm0.2$) and a percolating long range conductivity ($\sim0.32$ mS/m). Annealing in molecular hydrogen at similar CVD temperatures showed minimal effect. Raman spectroscopy also detected minimal change in all samples, implying the increase is not due to other phases. This leads to the experimental conclusion that hydrogenation, through atomic H-plasma treatment, results in a moderate increase in room temperature electrical conductivity, an associated finite dielectric loss factor. The potential as a tunable wide-band gap semiconductor is highlighted however for insulating dielectric substrate applications, microwave CVD may destroy these desirable properties.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2019

High-Throughput Detection and Manipulation of Single Nitrogen-Vacancy Center's Charge in Nanodiamonds

The fluorescent nitrogen-vacancy (NV) defect in diamond has remarkable photophysical properties, including high photostability, which allows stable fluorescence emission for hours; as a result, there has been much interest in using nanodiamonds (NDs) for quantum optics and biological imaging. Such applications have been limited by the complexity and heterogeneity of ND photophysics. Photophysics of the NV center in NDs have been studied before, but the lack of a sensitive and high-throughput method has limited the characterization of NDs. Here is reported a systematic analysis of NDs using two-color wide-field epifluorescence imaging coupled to high-throughput single-particle detection of single NVs in NDs with sizes down to 5-10 nm. By using fluorescence intensity ratios, the charge conversion of single NV center (NV- or NV0) is observed and the lifetimes of different NV charge states in NDs is measured. The discovery of reversible manipulation of NV charge states by pH is also presented. In addition to provide another mechanism to control the NV charge state in nanodiamonds, our findings open the possibility to perform pH nanosensing with a non-photobleachable probe.

physics.bio-ph↗

arXiv2019

Thick adherent diamond films on AlN with low thermal barrier resistance

Growth of $>$100 $μ$m thick diamond layer adherent on aluminium nitride is presented in this work. While thick films failed to adhere on untreated AlN films, hydrogen/nitrogen plasma treated AlN films retained the thick diamond layers. Clear differences in zeta potential measurement confirms the surface modification due to hydrogen/nitrogen plasma treatment. Areal Raman maps showed an increase in non-diamond carbon in the initial layers of diamond grown on pre-treated AlN. The presence of non-diamond carbon has minimal effect on the interface between diamond and AlN. The surfaces studied with x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) revealed a clear distinction between pre-treated and untreated samples. The surface aluminium goes from nitrogen rich environment to an oxygen rich environment after pre-treatment. Cross section transmission electron microscopy shows a clean interface between diamond and AlN. Thermal barrier resistance between diamond and AlN was found to be in the range of 16 m$^2$K/GW which is a large improvement on the current state-of-the-art.

physics.app-ph↗

arXiv2019

Superconducting boron doped nanocrystalline diamond on boron nitride ceramics

In this work we have demonstrated the growth of nanocrystalline diamond on boron nitride ceramic. We measured the zeta potential of the ceramics to select the diamond seeds. Diamond was then grown on the seeded ceramics using a microwave chemical vapour deposition system. A clear difference was found between the samples which were seeded with nanodiamond and the ones not seeded before growth. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the excellent quality of the diamond film. Dielectric measurements showed an increase in the dielectric constant of the material after diamond growth. The diamond was also doped with boron to make it superconducting. The film had a transition temperature close to 3.4K. Similar strategies can be applied for growth of diamond on other types of ceramics.

cond-mat.supr-con↗

arXiv2019

Quantitative analysis of the interaction between a dc SQUID and an integrated micromechanical doubly clamped cantilever

Based on the superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) equations described by the resistively- and capacitively-shunted junction model coupled to the equation of motion of a damped harmonic oscillator, we provide simulations to quantitatively describe the interaction between a dc SQUID and an integrated doubly clamped cantilever. We have chosen to investigate an existing experimental configuration and have explored the motion of the cantilever and the reaction of the SQUID as a function of the voltage-flux $V(Φ)$ characteristics. We clearly observe the Lorentz force back-action interaction and demonstrate how a sharp transition state drives the system into a nonlinear-like regime, and modulates the cantilever displacement amplitude, simply by tuning the SQUID parameters.

physics.app-ph↗