arXiv subjects

Steve Schulze

Publications and source records attributed to Steve Schulze.

At least 55 records · Page 3Linked to original sources

arXiv2025

JWST Spectroscopy of GRB 250702B: An Extremely Rare and Exceptionally Energetic Burst in a Dusty, Massive Galaxy at $z=1.036$

We present follow-up observations of the day-long, repeating GRB 250702B with the Near Infrared Spectrograph (NIRSpec) on board the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST). Through the identification of narrow hydrogen emission lines at a consistent redshift of $z = 1.036 \pm 0.004$, we calibrate the distance scale, and therefore the energetics, of this unique extragalactic transient. At this distance, the resulting $γ$-ray energy release is at least $E_{γ,\rm iso} = 2.2 \times 10^{54}$\,erg. We find no evidence for ongoing transient emission at the GRB position, and exclude any accompanying supernova with a luminosity comparable to the Type Ic broad-line SN 2023lcr, though we are unable to constrain fainter events. The inferred rate of such events, assuming at most one in the lifetime of {\em Fermi}, suggests that such bursts are very rare, with volumetric rates $>1,000$ times lower than normal high luminosity long GRBs and $> 10^5$ times lower than core collapse supernovae when corrected for beaming. Furthermore, we find that the host galaxy is unique amongst GRB host galaxies, and extremely rare in the general galaxy population, being extremely large, dusty and with high stellar mass. The identification of such an exotic GRB in such an unusual galaxy raises the possibility that the environment was important in the progenitor channel for this event.

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arXiv2025

SN 2023gpw: exploring the diversity and power sources of hydrogen-rich superluminous supernovae

We present our observations and analysis of SN 2023gpw, a hydrogen-rich superluminous supernova (SLSN II) with broad emission lines in its post-peak spectra. Unlike previously observed SLSNe II, its light curve suggests an abrupt drop during a solar conjunction between ~80 and ~180 d after the light-curve peak, possibly analogous to a normal hydrogen-rich supernova (SN). Spectra taken at and before the peak show hydrogen and helium `flash' emission lines attributed to early interaction with a dense confined circumstellar medium (CSM). A well-observed ultraviolet excess appears as these lines disappear, also as a result of CSM interaction. The blackbody photosphere expands roughly at the same velocity throughout the observations, indicating little or no bulk deceleration. This velocity is much higher than what is seen in spectral lines, suggesting asymmetry in the ejecta. The high total radiated energy ($\gtrsim9\times10^{50}$ erg) and aforementioned lack of bulk deceleration in SN 2023gpw are difficult to reconcile with a neutrino-driven SN simply combined with efficient conversion from kinetic energy to emission through interaction. This suggests an additional energy source such as a central engine. While magnetar-powered models qualitatively similar to SN 2023gpw exist, more modeling work is required to determine if they can reproduce the observed properties in combination with early interaction. The required energy might alternatively be provided by accretion onto a black hole created in the collapse of a massive progenitor star.

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arXiv2025

SN 2023xgo: Helium-rich Type Icn or Carbon-Flash Type Ibn supernova?

We present observations of SN~2023xgo, a transitional Type Ibn/Icn supernova, from $-5.6$ to $+63$~days relative to the $r$-band peak. Early spectra show C~III $λ5696$ emission reminiscent of Type~Icn SNe, which later gives way to Type~Ibn features. The He~I velocities ($1800$--$10{,}000$~km~s$^{-1}$) and pseudo-equivalent widths are among the highest in the Ibn/Icn class. The light curve declines at $0.14$~mag~d$^{-1}$ until $+30$~days, consistent with SNe~Ibn/Icn and slower than fast transients. SN~2023xgo is the faintest in our SN~Ibn sample ($M_r=-17.65\pm0.04$) but shows typical color and host properties. Semi-analytical modeling of the light curve suggests a compact CSM shell ($\sim 10^{12}$--$10^{13}$~cm) and a mass-loss rate of $10^{-4}$--$10^{-3}$~$M_{\odot}$~yr$^{-1}$, with CSM and ejecta masses of $\sim 0.22$ and $0.12$~$M_{\odot}$, respectively. Post-maximum light-curve and spectral modeling favor a $\sim 3$~$M_{\odot}$ helium-star progenitor with extended ($\sim 10^{15}$~cm), stratified CSM (density exponent $n=2.9$) and a mass-loss rate of $0.1$--$2.7$~$M_{\odot}$~yr$^{-1}$. These two mass-loss regimes imply a radially varying CSM, shaped by asymmetry or temporal changes in the progenitor's mass loss. This behavior is compatible with both binary and single-star evolution. We argue that the early Icn-like features arise from hot carbon ionization and fade to Ibn-like signatures as the ejecta and CSM cool, making SN~2023xgo a rare probe of the connection between SNe~Icn, SNe~Ibn, and Ibn events with ejecta signatures.

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arXiv2025

SN 2021aaev: a Hydrogen-Rich Superluminous Supernova with Early Flash and Long-Lived Circumstellar Interaction in an Unusual Host Environment

We present photometric and spectroscopic observations of SN\,2021aaev, a hydrogen-rich, superluminous supernova with persistent (at least $\sim100$ days) narrow Balmer lines (SLSN-IIn) at redshift $z=0.1557$. We observed SN\,2021aaev to rise in $32.5 \pm 1.0$ days since first light and reach a peak absolute magnitude of $-21.46 \pm 0.01$ in the ATLAS $o$ band. The pre-peak spectra resemble those of typical SNe IIn with flash-ionization features arising from the interaction with a dense, confined circumstellar medium (CSM), albeit the flash timescale is longer than usual ($>20$ days). Post peak, the narrow emission lines evolve slowly, and the absence of ejecta features indicates strong deceleration by the CSM. The total radiated energy (about $1.41\times10^{51}$~ergs) is possible with a low-mass (1--$2\,M_{\odot}$) ejecta ploughing into a massive (9--$19\,M_{\odot}$), extended (outer radius $>1\times10^{16}$~cm) H-rich CSM, or alternatively, with magnetar-powered models. Interestingly, the host environment consists of a spiral galaxy with a red substructure in the south-eastern part, and the SN's exact location coincided with the quiescent red substructure (star-formation rate$=0.02^{+0.13}_{-0.02}\,M_{\odot}$~yr$^{-1}$). Given the atypical environment and the obscuring effect of the massive CSM, a thermonuclear (Type Ia-CSM) origin cannot be ruled out. Altogether, SN\,2021aaev is a compelling case to study the diversity of SLSN-IIn features and their host environment.

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arXiv2025

SN 2023uqf: An Interacting Supernova Coincident with a High-Energy Neutrino

Astrophysical high-energy (TeV-PeV) neutrinos were first discovered in 2013, but their origin remains largely unknown. Here we present SN 2023uqf, a supernova found in coincidence with high-energy neutrino IC231004A, as part of a systematic optical follow-up program with the Zwicky Transient Facility. SN 2023uqf had a luminous and rapidly-evolving lightcurve, and spectroscopic observations indicated that the source was a Type Ibn supernova. Spectroscopic signatures confirm ongoing interaction between the supernova ejecta and a dense circumstellar medium, as expected for high-energy neutrino production in a core-collapse supernova. Given the rare nature of Type Ibn supernovae, SN 2023uqf is unlikely to have been discovered by chance over the course of our program (p=0.3%). Our discovery of SN 2023uqf provides the first observational evidence to support long-held theories that interacting supernovae can serve as cosmic hadron accelerators.

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arXiv2025

A real-time search for Type Ia Supernovae with late-time CSM interaction in ZTF

The nature of Type Ia supernova (SN Ia) progenitor systems and the mechanisms that lead up to their explosions are still widely debated. In rare cases the SN ejecta interact with circumstellar material (CSM) that was ejected from the progenitor system prior to the SN. The unknown distance between the CSM and SN explosion site makes it impossible to predict when the interaction will start. If the time between the SN and start of CSM interaction is of the order of months to years the SN has generally faded and is not actively followed up anymore, making it even more difficult to detect the interaction while it happens. Here we report on a real-time monitoring program which ran between 13-11-2023 and 09-07-2024, monitoring 6914 SNe Ia for signs of late-time rebrightening using the Zwicky Transient Facility (ZTF). Flagged candidates were rapidly followed up with photometry and spectroscopy to confirm the late-time excess and its position. We report the discovery of a $\sim50$ day rebrightening event in SN 2020qxz around 1200 days after the peak of its light curve. SN 2020qxz had signs of early CSM interaction but faded from view over 2 years before its reappearance. Follow-up spectroscopy revealed 4 emission lines that faded shortly after the end of the ZTF detected rebrightening. Our best match for these emission lines are H$β$ (blue shifted by $\sim5900$ km s$^{-1}$) and CaII$_{\lambda8542}$, NI$_{\lambda8567}$, and KI$_{λλ8763, 8767}$, all blue shifted by 5100 km s$^{-1}$ (although we note that these identifications are uncertain). This shows that catching and following up on late-time interactions as they occur can give new clues about the nature of the progenitor systems that produce these SNe by putting constraints on the possible type of donor star, and the only way to do this systematically is to use large sky surveys such as ZTF to monitor a large sample of objects.

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arXiv2025

The day-long, repeating GRB 250702BDE / EP250702a: A unique extragalactic transient

Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are singular outbursts of high-energy radiation with durations typically lasting from milliseconds to minutes and, in extreme cases, a few hours. They are attributed to the catastrophic outcomes of stellar-scale events and, as such, are not expected to recur. Here, we present observations of an exceptional GRB\,250702BDE which triggered the {\em Fermi} gamma-ray burst monitor on three occasions over several hours, and which was detected in soft X-rays by the \textit{Einstein Probe} a day before the $γ$-ray triggers (EP250702a). We present the discovery of an extremely red infrared counterpart of the event with the VLT, as well as radio observations from MeerKAT. Hubble Space Telescope observations pinpoint the source to a non-nuclear location in a host galaxy with complex morphology, implying GRB 250702BDE is an extragalactic event. The multi-wavelength counterpart is well described with standard afterglow models at a relatively low redshift $z \sim 0.2$, but the prompt emission does not readily fit within the expectations for either collapsar or merger-driven GRBs. Indeed, a striking feature of the multiple prompt outbursts is that the third occurs at an integer multiple of the interval between the first two. Although not conclusive, this could be indicative of periodicity in the progenitor system. We discuss several possible scenarios to explain the exceptional properties of the burst, which suggest that either a very unusual collapsar or the tidal disruption of a white dwarf by an intermediate-mass black hole are plausible explanations for this unprecedented GRB.

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arXiv2025

Twin peaks: SN 2021uvy and SN 2022hgk in the landscape of double-peaked stripped envelope supernovae

In recent years, a class of stripped-envelope supernovae (SESNe) showing two distinct light-curve peaks has emerged, where the first peak cannot be attributed to shock cooling emission. Such peculiar SNe are often studied individually, explained by a combination of powering mechanisms, but are rarely discussed broadly as a group. In this paper, we attempt to form a picture of the landscape of double-peaked SESNe and their powering mechanisms by adding two more objects -- SN 2021uvy and SN 2022hgk. SN 2021uvy is a broad, luminous SN Ib with an unusually long first peak rise and constant color evolution with rising photospheric temperature during the second peak. Though its first peak resembles SN 2019stc, their second peaks differ, making SN 2021uvy unique. SN 2022hgk shows photometric similarity to SN 2019cad and spectroscopic similarity to SN 2005bf, both proposed to be powered by a double-nickel distribution in their ejecta. We analyze their light curves and colors, compare them with a sample of double-peaked SESNe from the ZTF archive, and analyze the light curve parameters of the sample. We observe a correlation (p-value~0.025) between the peak absolute magnitudes of the first and second peaks. No single definitive powering mechanism applies to the whole sample, as it shows variety in the photometric and spectroscopic properties. However, sub-groups of similarity exist that can be explained by mechanisms like the double-nickel distribution, magnetar central engine, interaction, and fallback accretion. We also map out the duration between the peaks ($Δt^{21}$) vs the difference between peak absolute magnitudes ($ΔM^{21}$) as a phase-space that could potentially delineate the most promising powering mechanisms for the double-peaked SESNe.

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arXiv2025

The Jetted Tidal Disruption Event AT2022cmc: Investigating Connections to the Optical Tidal Disruption Event Population and Spectral Subclasses Through Late-Time Follow-up

AT2022cmc is the first on-axis jetted tidal disruption event (TDE) to be discovered at optical wavelengths. The optically bright nature of AT2022cmc presents an unprecedented opportunity to place this jetted TDE in the context of the larger optically selected thermal TDE population and explore potential connections to optical TDE subclasses, particularly the class of luminous TDEs that lack optical spectral features. In this work we present late-time optical observations of AT2022cmc, both imaging and spectroscopy, that extend the optical dataset to $\sim 160$ days from the first detection in the observed frame. The light curve clearly evolves from red to blue, which we interpret as a transition from a non-thermally dominated spectral energy distribution (SED) to thermally dominated SED. By accounting for the non-thermal emission evident in the optical SED at early times, we extract the properties of the thermal emission and compare to a sample of optically selected thermal TDEs. We find that the properties of AT2022cmc are consistent with previous correlations found for the evolution and properties of thermal TDEs, with the thermal properties of AT2022cmc aligning with the class of featureless and luminous TDEs. The confirmation of this similarity motivates the importance of prompt and multi-wavelength follow-up of featureless and luminous TDEs in order to further explore the connection they have with jetted TDEs.

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arXiv2025

The BTSbot-nearby discovery of SN 2024jlf: rapid, autonomous follow-up probes interaction in an 18.5 Mpc Type IIP supernova

We present observations of the Type IIP supernova (SN) 2024jlf, including spectroscopy beginning just 0.7 days ($\sim$17 hours) after first light. Rapid follow-up was enabled by the new $\texttt{BTSbot-nearby}$ program, which involves autonomously triggering target-of-opportunity requests for new transients in Zwicky Transient Facility data that are coincident with nearby ($D<60$ Mpc) galaxies and identified by the $\texttt{BTSbot}$ machine learning model. Early photometry and non-detections shortly prior to first light show that SN 2024jlf initially brightened by $>$4 mag/day, quicker than $\sim$90% of Type II SNe. Early spectra reveal weak flash ionization features: narrow, short-lived ($1.3 < τ~\mathrm{[d]} < 1.8$) emission lines of H$α$, He II, and C IV. Assuming a wind velocity of $v_w=50$ km s$^{-1}$, these properties indicate that the red supergiant progenitor exhibited enhanced mass-loss in the last year before explosion. We constrain the mass-loss rate to $10^{-4} < \dot{M}~\mathrm{[M_\odot~yr^{-1}]} < 10^{-3}$ by matching observations to model grids from two independent radiative hydrodynamics codes. $\texttt{BTSbot-nearby}$ automation minimizes spectroscopic follow-up latency, enabling the observation of ephemeral early-time phenomena exhibited by transients.

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arXiv2025

The Type I Superluminous Supernova Catalogue II: Spectroscopic Evolution in the Photospheric Phase, Velocity Measurements, and Constraints on Diversity

Hydrogen-poor superluminous supernovae (SLSNe) are among the most energetic explosions in the universe, reaching luminosities up to 100 times greater than those of normal supernovae. Detailed spectral analysis hold the potential to reveal their progenitors and underlying energy sources. This paper presents the largest compilation of SLSN photospheric spectra to date, encompassing data from ePESSTO+, the FLEET search and all published spectra up to December 2022. The dataset includes a total of 974 spectra of 234 SLSNe. By constructing average phase binned spectra, we find SLSNe initially exhibit high temperatures (10000 to 11000 K), with blue continua and weak lines. A rapid transformation follows, as temperatures drop to 5000 to 6000 K by 40 days post peak, leading to stronger P-Cygni features. These averages also suggest a fraction of SLSNe may contain some He at explosion. Variance within the dataset is slightly reduced when defining the phase of spectra relative to explosion, rather than peak, and normalising to the population's median e-folding time. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) supports this, requiring fewer components to explain the same level of variation when binning data by scaled days from explosion, suggesting a more homogeneous grouping. Using PCA and K-Means clustering, we identify outlying objects with unusual spectroscopic evolution and evidence for energy input from interaction, but find not support for groupings of two or more statistically significant subpopulations. We find Fe II λ5169 lines velocities closely track the radius implied from blackbody fits, indicating formation near the photosphere. We also confirm a correlation between velocity and velocity gradient, which can be explained if all SLSNe are in homologous expansion but with different scale velocities. This behaviour aligns with expectations for an internal powering mechanism.

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arXiv2025

The La Silla Schmidt Southern Survey

We present the La Silla Schmidt Southern Survey (LS4), a new wide-field, time-domain survey to be conducted with the 1 m ESO Schmidt telescope. The 268 megapixel LS4 camera mosaics 32 2k$\times$4k fully depleted CCDs, providing a $\sim$20 deg$^2$ field of view with $1''$ pixel$^{-1}$ resolution. The LS4 camera will have excellent performance at longer wavelengths: in a standard 45 s exposure the expected 5$σ$ limiting magnitudes in $g$, $i$, $z$ are $\sim$21.5, $\sim$20.9, and $\sim$20.3 mag (AB), respectively. The telescope design requires a novel filter holder that fixes different bandpasses over each quadrant of the detector. Two quadrants will have $i$ band, while the other two will be $g$ and $z$ band and color information will be obtained by dithering targets across the different quadrants. The majority (90%) of the observing time will be used to conduct a public survey that monitors the extragalactic sky at both moderate (3 d) and high (1 d) cadence, as well as focused observations within the Galactic bulge and plane. Alerts from the public survey will be broadcast to the community via established alert brokers. LS4 will run concurrently with the Vera C. Rubin Observatory's Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST). The combination of LS4+LSST will enable detailed holistic monitoring of many nearby transients: high-cadence LS4 observations will resolve the initial rise and peak of the light curve while less-frequent but deeper observations by LSST will characterize the years before and after explosion. Here, we summarize the primary science objectives of LS4 including microlensing events in the Galaxy, extragalactic transients, the search for electromagnetic counterparts to multi-messenger events, and cosmology.

astro-ph.IM↗

arXiv2025

SN 2021foa: the bridge between SN IIn and Ibn

We present the long-term photometric and spectroscopic analysis of a transitioning SN~IIn/Ibn from $-$10.8 d to 150.7 d post $V$-band maximum. SN~2021foa shows prominent He {\sc i} lines comparable in strength to the H$α$ line around peak, placing SN~2021foa between the SN~IIn and SN~Ibn populations. The spectral comparison shows that it resembles the SN~IIn population at pre-maximum, becomes intermediate between SNe~IIn/Ibn and at post-maximum matches with SN~IIn 1996al. The photometric evolution shows a precursor at $-$50 d and a light curve shoulder around 17d. The peak luminosity and color evolution of SN 2021foa are consistent with most SNe~IIn and Ibn in our comparison sample. SN~2021foa shows the unique case of a SN~IIn where the narrow P-Cygni in H$α$ becomes prominent at 7.2 days. The H$α$ profile consists of a narrow (500 -- 1200 km s$^{-1}$) component, intermediate width (3000 -- 8000 km s$^{-1}$) and broad component in absorption. Temporal evolution of the H$α$ profile favours a disk-like CSM geometry. Hydrodynamical modelling of the lightcurve well reproduces a two-component CSM structure with different densities ($ρ$ $\propto$ r$^{-2}$ -- $ρ$ $\propto$ r$^{-5}$), mass-loss rates (10$^{-3}$ -- 10$^{-1}$ M$_{\odot}$ yr$^{-1}$) assuming a wind velocity of 1000 km s$^{-1}$ and having a CSM mass of 0.18 M$_{\odot}$. The overall evolution indicates that SN~2021foa most likely originated from a LBV star transitioning to a WR star with the mass-loss rate increasing in the period from 5 to 0.5 years before the explosion or it could be due to a binary interaction.

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arXiv2024

Optical and Radio Analysis of Systematically Classified Broad-lined Type Ic Supernovae from the Zwicky Transient Facility

We study a magnitude-limited sample of 36 Broad-lined Type Ic Supernovae (SNe Ic-BL) from the Zwicky Transient Facility Bright Transient Survey (detected between March 2018 and August 2021), which is the largest systematic study of SNe Ic-BL done in literature thus far. We present the light curves (LCs) for each of the SNe, and analyze the shape of the LCs to derive empirical parameters, along with the explosion epochs for every event. The sample has an average absolute peak magnitude in the r band of $M_r^{max}$ = -18.51 $\pm$ 0.15 mag. Using spectra obtained around peak light, we compute expansion velocities from the Fe II 5169 Angstrom line for each event with high enough signal-to-noise ratio spectra, and find an average value of $v_{ph}$ = 16,100 $\pm$ 1,100 km $s^{-1}$. We also compute bolometric LCs, study the blackbody temperature and radii evolution over time, and derive the explosion properties of the SNe. The explosion properties of the sample have average values of $M_{Ni}$ = $0.37_{-0.06}^{+0.08}$ solar masses, $M_{ej}$ = $2.45_{-0.41}^{+0.47}$ solar masses, and $E_K$= $4.02_{-1.00}^{+1.37} \times 10^{51}$ erg. Thirteen events have radio observations from the Very Large Array, with 8 detections and 5 non-detections. We find that the populations that have radio detections and radio non-detections are indistinct from one another with respect to their optically-inferred explosion properties, and there are no statistically significant correlations present between the events' radio luminosities and optically-inferred explosion properties. This provides evidence that the explosion properties derived from optical data alone cannot give inferences about the radio properties of SNe Ic-BL, and likely their relativistic jet formation mechanisms.

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arXiv2024

The Einstein Probe transient EP240414a: Linking Fast X-ray Transients, Gamma-ray Bursts and Luminous Fast Blue Optical Transients

Detections of fast X-ray transients (FXTs) have been accrued over the last few decades. However, their origin has remained mysterious. There is now rapid progress thanks to timely discoveries and localisations with the Einstein Probe mission. Early results indicate that FXTs may frequently, but not always, be associated with gamma-ray bursts (GRBs). Here, we report on the multi-wavelength counterpart of FXT EP240414a, which has no reported gamma-ray counterpart. The transient is located 25.7~kpc in projection from a massive galaxy at $z=0.40$. We perform comprehensive photometric and spectroscopic follow-up. The optical light curve shows at least three distinct emission episodes with timescales of $\sim 1, 4$ and 15 days and peak absolute magnitudes of $M_R \sim -20$, $-21$, and $-19.5$, respectively. The optical spectrum at early times is extremely blue, inconsistent with afterglow emission. It may arise from the interaction of both jet and supernova shock waves with the stellar envelope and a dense circumstellar medium, as has been suggested for some Fast Blue Optical Transients (LFBOTs). At late times, the spectrum evolves to a broad-lined~Type~Ic supernova, similar to those seen in collapsar long-GRBs. This implies that the progenitor of EP240414a is a massive star creating a jet-forming supernova inside a dense envelope, resulting in an X-ray outburst with a luminosity of $\sim 10^{48}$ erg s$^{-1}$, and the complex observed optical/IR light curves. If correct, this argues for a causal link between the progenitors of long-GRBs, FXTs and LFBOTs.

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arXiv2024

Binary progenitor systems for Type Ic supernovae

Core-collapse supernovae are explosions of massive stars at the end of their evolution. They are responsible for metal production and for halting star formation, having a significant impact on galaxy evolution. The details of these processes depend on the nature of supernova progenitors, but it is unclear if Type Ic supernovae (without hydrogen or helium lines in their spectra) originate from core-collapses of very massive stars (> 30 Msun) or from less massive stars in binary systems. Here we show that Type II (with hydrogen lines) and Ic supernovae are located in environments with similar molecular gas densities, therefore their progenitors have comparable lifetimes and initial masses. This supports a binary interaction for most Type Ic supernova progenitors, which explains the lack of hydrogen and helium lines. This finding can be implemented in sub-grid prescriptions in numerical cosmological simulations to improve the feedback and chemical mixing.

astro-ph.SR↗

arXiv2024

A cosmic formation site of silicon and sulphur revealed by a new type of supernova explosion

The cores of stars are the cosmic furnaces where light elements are fused into heavier nuclei. The fusion of hydrogen to helium initially powers all stars. The ashes of the fusion reactions are then predicted to serve as fuel in a series of stages, eventually transforming massive stars into a structure of concentric shells. These are composed of natal hydrogen on the outside, and consecutively heavier compositions inside, predicted to be dominated by helium, carbon/oxygen, oxygen/neon/magnesium, and oxygen/silicon/sulphur. Silicon and sulphur are fused into inert iron, leading to the collapse of the core and either a supernova explosion or the direct formation of a black hole. Stripped stars, where the outer hydrogen layer has been removed and the internal He-rich layer (in Wolf-Rayet WN stars) or even the C/O layer below it (in Wolf-Rayet WC/WO stars) are exposed, provide evidence for this shell structure, and the cosmic element production mechanism it reflects. The types of supernova explosions that arise from stripped stars embedded in shells of circumstellar material (most notably Type Ibn supernovae from stars with outer He layers, and Type Icn supernovae from stars with outer C/O layers) confirm this scenario. However, direct evidence for the most interior shells, which are responsible for the production of elements heavier than oxygen, is lacking. Here, we report the discovery of the first-of-its-kind supernova arising from a star peculiarly stripped all the way to the silicon and sulphur-rich internal layer. Whereas the concentric shell structure of massive stars is not under debate, it is the first time that such a thick, massive silicon and sulphur-rich shell, expelled by the progenitor shortly before the SN explosion, has been directly revealed.

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arXiv2024

Probing pre-supernova mass loss in double-peaked Type Ibc supernovae from the Zwicky Transient Facility

Eruptive mass loss of massive stars prior to supernova (SN) explosion is key to understanding their evolution and end fate. An observational signature of pre-SN mass loss is the detection of an early, short-lived peak prior to the radioactive-powered peak in the lightcurve of the SN. This is usually attributed to the SN shock passing through an extended envelope or circumstellar medium (CSM). Such an early peak is common for double-peaked Type IIb SNe with an extended Hydrogen envelope but is uncommon for normal Type Ibc SNe with very compact progenitors. In this paper, we systematically study a sample of 14 double-peaked Type Ibc SNe out of 475 Type Ibc SNe detected by the Zwicky Transient Facility. The rate of these events is ~ 3-9 % of Type Ibc SNe. A strong correlation is seen between the peak brightness of the first and the second peak. We perform a holistic analysis of this sample's photometric and spectroscopic properties. We find that six SNe have ejecta mass less than 1.5 Msun. Based on the nebular spectra and lightcurve properties, we estimate that the progenitor masses for these are less than ~ 12 Msun. The rest have an ejecta mass > 2.4 Msun and a higher progenitor mass. This sample suggests that the SNe with low progenitor masses undergo late-time binary mass transfer. Meanwhile, the SNe with higher progenitor masses are consistent with wave-driven mass loss or pulsation-pair instability-driven mass loss simulations.

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