Thiago T. Bergamaschi

arXiv2026

On the impossibility of observational confirmation of black holes

General relativity has achieved remarkable experimental and observational success. Critically, recent data from the LIGO-Virgo-KAGRA, Event Horizon Telescope, and GRAVITY collaborations are often credited with \textit{demonstrating} the existence of black holes, but in fact they only provide evidence for objects that should be regarded as black hole candidates. While current data are in striking agreement with the predictions for Kerr black holes, they can only rule out specific alternative models of compact objects rather than provide conclusive proof of black holes. More fundamentally, and independent of whether or not black holes exist, general relativity itself imposes limits on what can be observationally established. Essentially, no observational data is sufficient to confirm the existence of black holes.

gr-qc↗

arXiv2026

A pedagogical approach to the black hole information issue

We provide a pedagogical introduction to the concepts underlying black hole information loss, intended for readers familiar with special relativity and quantum mechanics. We emphasize that there is no paradox of information loss, and that proposals suggesting deviations from well-established theories at arbitrary regimes are inherently contradictory.

gr-qc↗

arXiv2025

On the nature of the black hole information problem

The aim of this work is to present the black hole information problem and discuss the assumptions and hypotheses necessary for its formulation. As the problem arises in the framework of semiclassical gravity, we first review the necessary notions to describe Lorentzian manifolds equipped with physical properties, as well as the physical concepts of the theory that describes the gravitational interaction as the curvature of spacetime, general relativity. From its classical perspective, we develop the formalism to study the dynamical aspects of black holes in spacetimes obeying suitable causality conditions. Equipped with conjectures that nature censors naked singularities and that black holes reach a stationary configuration after they form, the black hole uniqueness theorems allow us to review several relations for the geometrical quantities associated with them. Following considerations of the other fundamental interactions, which are described by quantum field theory, we review the arguments in the formalism of quantum field theory in curved spacetime that give rise to the effective particle creation effect, its approximately thermal character, and the concept of black hole evaporation. With a precise quantification of information in quantum mechanics and assuming that the condition for physically acceptable states is given by the Hadamard condition, we review the result that entanglement between causally complementary regions is an intrinsic feature of quantum field theory. As a consequence, we discuss how the formation and complete evaporation of black holes leads to information loss. Conscious that such a prediction follows if no deviations from the semiclassical picture occur at the Planck scale, we discuss alternatives to this nonunitary dynamical evolution and formulate the black hole information problem. Lastly, we analyze the assumptions and hypotheses that lead to the problem.

gr-qc↗