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arXiv · 2610.23309

Inferring L1 Backgrounds from L2 English with LLM Token Probabilities

Ahmet Yavuz Uluslu·Mark Gales·Kate Knill·Gerold Schneider
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Abstract

Native language identification (NLI) infers a non-native speaker's first language (L1) from their second language (L2) production. We investigate a token probability approach that scores each text sample as a continuation of a prompt prefix specifying a candidate L1, then predicts the candidate with the highest score. We evaluate our approach using Llama 3.1 8B and 70B on three datasets: TOEFL9, Write and Improve 2024, and BULATS-L1. We compare its performance with previous prompting-based classification approaches. Token-probability scoring substantially improves on direct classification, particularly with the 8B model, while the 70B model achieves state-of-the-art performance across all datasets. Our results indicate that pretrained LLMs' token probabilities contain information useful for distinguishing L1 backgrounds from L2 English production.

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Ahmet Yavuz Uluslu, Mark Gales, Kate Knill, Gerold Schneider. 2026-10-16. Inferring L1 Backgrounds from L2 English with LLM Token Probabilities. https://arxiv.org/abs/2610.23309

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